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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2637-8914/180
1 Graduate Studentat European University Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder),EANGAGE Fellow
2 Graduate Studentat Goethe-University Frankfurt, EANGAGEFellow
3 Co-Trainer at Food Scienceand Technology Association (Myanmar), EANGAGE Fellow
*Corresponding Author: Likhedy Touch, Graduate Student at European University Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder), EANGAGE Fellow
Citation: Likhedy Touch, Melissa Hiltl, Win Nandar Thet, (2023), Gender Perspectives on Food Security, J. Nutrition and Food Processing, 6(8);
DOI:10.31579/2637-8914/180
Copyright: © 2023, Likhedy Touch. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 17 August 2023 | Accepted: 13 September 2023 | Published: 28 September 2023
Keywords: food security; lmrb; malnutrition; mekong river commission; nutrition; gen- der; lower mekong river basin
Many effortsin water supply,energy as well as food security development in Southeast Asia are connectedand have regionaldimensions since they rely on transboundary river basins like the Lower Mekong River Basin (LMRB). Especially when itcomes to food security and proper nutrition, the Mekong River is a central source of living. Mekong riparian states faced nearly 15 million malnutrition cases from 2019 to 2021. Approximately, 60 per cent of the undernourished are female. Since regional food security issues are closely related to water management and regional security issues in its member countries, this paper analyses food security in relation to the Mekong River Commission as a central interregional organisation for sustainable development within the LMRB.
With its growing population, rising economy and rapid urbanisation, Southeast Asia (SEA) is one of the most dynamic and fastest-growing regions in the world. With 1.75 billion people, the region is home to 20 per cent of the global population. Its population is growing by 1.5 per cent annually while its economy has expanded rapidly in recent decades. Despite its growth over recent decades, SEA has still
● Is food security in the Mekong Delta addressed by the Mekong River Commission?
● How does the Mekong River Commission address gender mainstreaming, especiallyin food security?
● Thesis: The Mekong River Commission should address food security as much as it addresses gender mainstreaming, because food security and gender are linked closely due to women9s role in food security.
This paper conducts a policy analysis using a method comprising both literature review and quantitative data. Most of the data for the literature review is extracted from secondary sources such as policy papers, academic research, journal articles, etc., combined with quanti-tative data extracted from the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations9 FAOSTAT website. [9] Additionally, this paper will heavily consult documents and reports from the Mekong River Commission (MRC), the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations (UN) in general as well as the World Health Or- ganisation (WHO).
Based on the analysis provided throughout this paper, we aim to produce policy recommen- dations based on the gaps we have identified regarding food security in the Mekong Delta and to examine the practicality of the implementation of the recommended policies. The timeframe of analysis is between 2019 and 2021, because we see the necessity to include the impacts on food security caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the Mekong Subregion.Based on the existing food security policies, this paper will specifically target the policies that have been put out by the Mekong River Commission [10] as it is an intergovernmental or- ganisation that has worked in the Mekong region for around 25 years, serving as a regional platform and knowledge hub for regional dialogue and cooperation in the Lower Mekong River Basin.
[11] Hence, this paper intends to look at food security policies through a gender perspective lens by taking gender-based differences into account at the MRC level.
It seems obvious that the MRC is focusing on water management and security in the region, rather than on food-related sectors. In this light, we would like to address this as a gap which the MRC should integrate into its work. Regional food security issues are closely related to water management and regional security issues within the member countries. Thus, is food security in the Mekong Delta well addressed by the Mekong River Commission?
Therefore, the paper will analyse food security issues through a gender perspective by using and applying gender mainstreaming and the gender- sensitive approach as a tool to achieve gender equality in this field. Accordingly, our central research question is: How does the Me- kong River Commission address food security from a gender perspective?
Gender Concepts and Definitions It can be said that women are generally more vulnerable in terms of food security than men asthey are often responsible for growing and preparing food, for which they rely heavily on the availability of food in the
market.12 Hence, indigenous communities and marginalised groups like women and girls in particular suffer from food insecurity and malnutrition. Women and infants, children and adolescents are at particular risk of malnutrition due to their higher needs in terms of consumption. According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB) report on gender equality and food security,
The MRC is the key transboundary governance institution within the Mekong River region. Four countries, namely Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, are members of the MRC while Myanmar and China are dialogue partners, following the recommendations for sustain- able development in the Basin Development Strategy. [19] Since its organs are operating on a transregional level without having supranational competence, the MRC is a unique project with both ambitious as well as ambiguous governance roles. [20] The Mekong River Commis- sion9s vision is to promote prosperity in the Mekong River Basin while sustaining efforts to ensure the sustainable development and management of the Mekong9s water resources21. Thus, its mission is to promote and coordinate sustainable management and development of the water and related resources for the mutual benefits of the lower Mekong countries and thepeople9s wellbeing. [22]
In the meantime, it is worth mentioning the work of the MRC on gender policy, as in 2000, the MRC Council adopted the Gender Policy and Strategy, recognising gender equality as a national priority contributing towards both social and economic development of the region.At the institutional level, the MRC is committed to mainstreaming gender into development plans and policies by including gender aspects in Basin Development Strategies and Plans, strengthening technical capacity and accountability systems for gender mainstreaming in technical work, promoting a gender-sensitive organisational culture and working environment while generating the commitment of the leadership, promoting stakeholder participation and gender mainstreaming through
dialogues and training sessions as well as developing gender- related guidelines, toolkits and capacity-building tools. [23]
State of Food Security and Nutrition in Mekong Subregion in Data
Food is a human right and essential for everyone. The World Summit on Food Security in 2009 declared:
a) Availability – sufficient supply of food in terms of quantity and quality;
b) Accessibility – enough land, inputs and money to achieve the required food for goodhealth;
c) Utilisation – preparation, consumption and disposal of food with the support of cleanwater, dietary knowledge and safe sanitation;
d) Stability – stable and sustainable food supply access and availability during acuteshocks and chronic or cyclical events. [25]
Additional dimensions of Sustainability and Agency can be added
when considering food security and nutrition according to the High Level Panel Experts (HLPE) report from 2017 [26] and 2020 [27].
As an impact of food insecurity, malnutrition problems are found within the Lower Mekong Region. Women and infants, children and adolescents are at particular risk of malnutrition.
a) Undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low height- for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age);
b) Micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess; and
c) Overweight, which includes obesity and diet- related non-communicable diseases(such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and some cancers). [29]
As shown in Tables 1 and 2, severe food insecurity affects 22.1 million people (3.3 per centof the total population) in Southeast Asia and about 125.5 million people (18.8 per cent of thetotal population) are moderately or severely concerned by food insecurity. [30]
Table 1: Prevalence of food insecurity at severe level only, and at moderate or severe level, based on the food insecurity scale, 2014- 2020.31
Table 2: Number of people experiencing food insecurity at severe level only, and at moderateor severe level, based on the food insecurity scale, 2014-2020.32
Table 3 is based on combined data from FAOSTAT [33] that provides information about the state of undernourishment within the five countries of the Lower Mekong Delta between2016 and 2021. It provides an oversight of the specific selected indicator 8hunger and food insecurity9 by extracting data from the FAOSTAT web page showing the number of people being undernourished (millions) on a 3-year average. [34] In terms of our analysis, the period 2019 to 2021 is especially interesting. According to FAOSTAT9s collected data, nearly 15 million people faced undernutrition and food insecurity in the Mekong riparian states in the period 2019-2021. Looking deeper, the malnutrition data of Cambodia and Laos in the period2019-2021 did not change compared with those in the period 2018-2020. However, in My- anmar and Thailand, the malnutrition level rose in the 2019-2021 period. As a positive sign, the malnutrition level fell in the period 2019-2021 in Vietnam compared with the level from the 2018-2020 period.
Table 3: Number of people undernourished in the Mekong region from 2016 to 2021.35
According to the Economist Impact Global Food Security Index [36], Vietnam stands at 46th, followed by Thailand, standing at 64th, Myanmar at 72nd, Cambodia at 78th and Laos at81st, among 113 countries. These data showed Mekong riparian states9 food security condi- tions and pointed out concerns regarding the food security conditions in the Mekong riparian states.
With its growing population, rising economy and rapid urbanisation, Southeast Asia (SEA) is one of the most dynamic and fastest-growing regions in the world. With 1.75 billion people, the region is home to 20 per cent of the global population. Its population is growing by 1.5 per cent annually while its economy has expanded rapidly in recent decades. Despite its growth over recent decades, SEA has still
Figure 1: The impacts of COVID-19 on the six dimensions of food security.50
The increased occurrence of these major drivers, now exacerbated by the COVID-19 pan- demic, has led to a rise in hunger and has undermined progress in reducing all forms of mal- nutrition, particularly in low- and middle-income countries within the Global South. [51] Households in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People9s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Mongo- lia, Philippines, and Solomon Islands suffered income losses, including farm and non-farm losses, and lower wages and remittances, based on a study by the World Bank High- Frequency Phone Surveys (HFPS). From this survey, about 75 per cent in Cambodia re- sponded that as a result of income loss there is a reduction in purchasing power for the goods to consume during the pandemic. [52] Due to its universality, the pandemic affects most of the stated drivers of food security and caused heavier burdens for the already affected states of the Lower Mekong Basin.
Demography: Food and Income
Since poverty amplifies the risk of suffering from malnutrition, poor people and low-income families are more likely to be affected by different forms of malnutrition. Both undernutritionand overnutrition directly and indirectly correlate with poverty. [53] According to FAO, people living on less than US$1.90 per day spend up to 80 per cent of their income on food.54 Infor- mal workers in Thailand reported receiving only 27 per cent of their pre-pandemic average monthly salary, putting them near the extreme poverty level of US$1.90 per day. [55] Therefore,due to lack of accessibility, rising prices or insecurity, people affected by poverty can often be unable to afford to buy food in the quality and quantity needed for a diverse and healthy diet. [56] Approximately 462 million adults worldwide were underweighting in 2014, while 1.9 billion were either overweight or obese, because of demographic drivers connected to income. Both groups can be considered as suffering from forms of food insecurity. In 2016, an estimated 155 million children under the age of 5 were suffering from stunting, while 41 million were overweight or obese. [57] In one way or another, every country in the world is affected by some form of malnutrition since combating malnutrition in all its forms is one of the greatest globalhealth challenges. Generally, malnutrition increases health care costs, reduces productivity, and slows economicgrowth, which can perpetuate a cycle of poverty and ill-health. [58] Socio-Cultural: Food and Gender
Figure 2: Globally and in every region, the prevalence of food insecurity is higher among women than men60
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent economic crisis, prices for food, fuel, as well as requirements for agriculture such as fertilizers and machines were found rising rapid- ly in the Mekong riparian states. Hence, such kinds of social protection programmes can be extended in the Mekong riparian states to support food security and fulfil Sustainable Devel- opment Goal 2 (SDG 2).70 Discussion: Bridging Food Security and Gender Mainstreaming As the world continues to face mounting demographic pressures, access to food and stable nutrition will be challenged while the demand for accessible and affordable food will surge. Increasing urbanisation, deteriorating agricultural spaces, and resource scarcity all work to exacerbate economic, political, and social drivers of conflict. Looking at it from a socio- economic perspective, malnutrition increases health costs and seriously affects people9s live- lihoods.71 For instance, overweight and obesity are associated with a higher risk of non- communicable diseases (NCDs). This can easily become a substantial financial burden, par- ticularly in low-income households in the Global South. Mendelson Forman states in a policy memo at Stimson that fighting food insecurity requires a dynamic and comprehensive policy approach reflecting the issue9s natural integration of economics, development, and national security while recognising gender-sensitive needs.72 Women, infants, children, and adoles- cents are at particular risk of malnutrition. In addition, women of reproductive age and infants in their first 1,000 days, from conception to their second birthday, need special attention.73 Consequently, looking at the growing demand for water, food, energy, and other consumption goods, combined with increased resource scarcity, authors such as Rasul et al.74, De Schut- ter75, Akter et al.76 and Quisumbing et al.77 rightly stress the need for integrated solutions.
At the Mekong River Commission, gender mainstreaming policies have been laid out at two different levels – institutional level and national level.78 At the institutional level, the MRC has been advocating for gender mainstreaming by integrating gender aspects into all their strategies and plans, while at the same time strengthening the technical capacity and account- ability system for gender mainstreaming in the technical work at the MRC. Furthermore, the internal aspect cannot be overlooked, in the sense that the institution has promoted a gender- sensitive organisational culture and working environment among colleagues. Externally, the institution should also take a further step to promote gender mainstreaming through dialoguesand training with the relevant stakeholders by applying and sharing the developed gender guidelines and toolkits. Meanwhile, at the national level, the respective members have devel- oped their own national gender strategies and plans, in which the MRC has taken an active role in supporting the national agencies in mainstreaming gender into their respective initia- tives and implementation, including capacity building, training on gender-related topics, and recognising gender equality as one of the national priorities to increase equitable economic and social development. On the side lines, the MRC developed a Gender Responsiveness Plan [79] in order to support the member countries to mainstream gender into their respective development plans, particularly in climate change and adaptation. [80]
The MRC Indicator Framework includes three gender indicators: (i) gender equality in own- ership of land, (ii) gender equity in education, and (iii) female-male ratio of people employed in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) water-related sectors.81 Positive effects of these three indicators can improve the accessibility aspect of food security and nutritional outcomes. As outlined throughout the paper, gender equity is the key to sustainable development for the Global South. Mainstreaming gender sensitivity into development policies can significantly contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction in the riparian states, which further nar-rows the gender gaps and increases the access of men and women to safe and sufficient food. Furthermore, by ensuring the equality of genders and empowering women in all sectors, the Mekong countries will be able to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. According to the 17 SDGs, actions like zero hunger (SDG 2) or decent work and economic growth (SDG8) must go hand-in-hand with gender equality (SDG 5). [82] We have sharply stated how tightly linked and important gender-sensitive public policies and improved nutritional outcomes are for agricultural investment and rural development. Wom- en in Asia and the Pacific region face obstacles in all their roles as food producers, providers, and preparers, mostly due to socio-cultural, demographic as well as natural drivers such as COVID-19. They are affected as waged workers both on and off farms, as beneficiaries of social protection measures, and as primary caregivers, particularly during the early years of a child9s life. By removing these obstacles, not only will women and girls gain, but also all of society will benefit because of enhanced human capital as well as the significant improve- ments in food security arising from diversified ways of contribution. [83] Hence, we strongly support that policy implementation must be linked with gender-sensitivitymainstreaming and this requires every sector9s involvement in terms of food security: the agriculture sector, rural development sector, education sector, financial sector of government organisations and other organisations should all together consider to implement gender-sensitive policies.
Policy recommendations for safe food for all genders:
1) Women and girls are keenly aware of the needs of their households and local commu- nities: Active promotion of a stronger representation of women at an early stage through, for instance, educational programmes, low-level engagement or thematic sponsorship is needed.
2) Women are underrepresented in decision-making bodies within relevant stakeholder groups like the Mekong River Commission: There is a need for an integrated ap- proach for a more balanced representation of women in decision making and policy implementation to address unequal nutrition supply, food insecurities, and integrated water management frameworks.84
3) Food security and food-related impacts from instabilities arising from climate change should be adequately captured in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of MRC member countries.
4) Development of a more gender-balanced policy framework at the transregional level by the Mekong River Commission states, where the interests of indigenous communi- ties and marginalised gender groups are holistically accommodated.
5) For conflict-affected areas, humanitarian, development, and peacebuilding policies should be developed together.85
6) The interventions should be pro-poor and inclusive to tackle poverty and structural in-equalities.86
7) There should be technical and policy support for COVID-19 recovery actions for building back better (inclusive recovery) and green agrifood transformation (sustaina- ble and resilient recovery).87
In conclusion, food insecurity and malnutrition are serious threats to all individuals as well as the general development of countries within the Lower Mekong Basin. As shown in the data presented, food insecurity presents substantial challenges to human health and wellbeing through higher disease and mortality rates, which further affect the economic development of the Mekong countries. Particularly in the Mekong region, the MRC is not focusing enough on food security, though it is closely related to water security and management. The countries in the Mekong Region currently face double or triple burdens of malnutrition, as they are simul- taneously affected by undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies and overweight, caused by a lack of accessibility and availability, insufficient utilisation, and instability.88
It can be said that, as a consequence of gender inequality combined with the pandemic and regional conflicts, the Mekong riparian states face serious food insecurity conditions. It has been proven that women play a key role in the three pillars of food security: food production, economic access, and nutritional security; thus gender mainstreaming and women empower- ment in the food system must be addressed accordingly.89 Land ownership, one of the gender indicators of the MRC Indicator Framework, is a major determinant of the ability of rural women to improve the productivity of the land they use, to rebalance decision- making power within the household, and to raise their status in the household, the community as well as society.90 Providing basic food safety, nutritional education, and agriculture technology train- ing to women can raise the production of safe and nutritious food. Additionally, creating in- centive programmes, job opportunities for women or financial support to women leading small and medium-sized enterprises will not only increase their income, but will also increase their economical stability to afford food. Lastly, more investments in women and their mater- nal health care will enhance the nutritional security of both women and children since care work in Asian countries is still predominantly a gendered job.91
Therefore, food security is the essence of the Mekong states9 development strategy and should be addressed properly through gender mainstreaming as well as new concepts for fe- male support, optimally developed by the Mekong River Commission to break the cycle of poverty and to increase economic growth.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Likhedy Touch, Melissa Hiltl and Win Nandar Thet.
Likhedy Touch is a former Programme Manager at Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung Cambodia in charge of sustainability and women empowerment projects. Current- ly, she is doing her full-time LLM in International Human Rights andHumanitarian Law at European Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder) in Germa- ny.
She holds two bachelor9s degrees, which are Bachelor of Law and a Bachelor of Arts in International Studies with a concentration in In- ternational Relations. In the past two years, she has been leading a few youth organisations with the vision of empowering young peopleto realise their full potential through inspiring ideas and networking opportunities.
Melissa Hiltl is a graduate student at Goethe University Frankfurt am Main and EANGAGE fellow for the sus- tainable development cluster. Currently finishing her M.A. in International Studies/ Peace- and Conflict Re- search, she mainly focuses on topics such as Water, San-itation and Hygiene (WASH), Integrated Water Re- source Management (IWRM) as well as climate resilient cities. Besides, she is interested in opportunities for gen-der-sensitive and just sustainable development within Southeast Asia. Generally, Melissa aims to include postcolonial perspectives into her research, trying to critically reflect global power asymmetries including colonial continuities. Melissa also holds a Bachelor9s in Politi- cal Science and History from Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg.
Win Nandar Thet is a research fellow at EANGAGE programme under the cluster of sustainable development and also works as co- trainer at Food Science and Technology Association. She assists thetrainer with his/her training about food safety, quality and technolo- gy and develops a schedule to assess training needs. As a food con- sultant, she consults and advises various companies, organisations and growers about food safety, quality and technology, seeking to develop and improve their food service operations. She also served as a volunteer at Civic Society Initiative (British Council Yangon) for a mo- bile library project for underprivileged children, supporting with fund raising. education, healthcare, social welfare and nutrition for deprived people.
She earned a Master of Food Technology from Yangon Technological University with the research title of
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