Coping strategies to food insecurity employed by students of karatina university, kenya
Daniel, S. Sewe
Michael N.I. Lokuruka M
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Karatina University, P.O Box, 1957-10101, Karatina, Kenya.
*Corresponding Author: Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Karatina University, P.O Box, 1957-10101, Karatina, Kenya.
Citation: Daniel, S. and Michael N.I. Lokuruka. (2022). Coping strategies to food insecurity employed by students of karatina university, kenya. J. Nutrition and Food Processing. 5(3); DOI: 10.31579/2637-8914/092
Received:12 March 2022 | Accepted:18 April 2022 | Published:20 May 2022
Keywords: coping strategies; food insecurity; university students; keny
Abstract
It has been reported that 1 in 3 Kenyans suffers from severe food insecurity and poor nutrition. This study aimed to establish the level of food insecurity among Karatina University students and coping strategies employed. A nutrition survey research design and random sampling was done with a sample size of 94 undergraduate students, who resided within the university. The students filled questionnaires for the details required. The proximate composition of frequently consumed foods was estimated by AOAC methods. Dietary and non-dietary coping strategies to food insecurity and diets consumed by students were established. The percentage of students who were food insecure was 27.85% as evidenced by skipping a meal due to lack of money variously for 1-3 days in a month. Also, 22.3% borrowed foods from friends and neighbors, 48.9% stuck to simple and affordable meals, which were either, rice+beans/green grams or ugali+cabbage/ leafy green vegetables) or ugali+beans/green grams. The non-dietary strategy showed 18.1% students reducing expenditure on airtime, while 2.1% sold assets-mobile phones and laptops. The most commonly consumed meals by both genders were chapatti + beans/green grams at 24.5% or rice + beans/ green grams or cabbage/kales/spinach either at 12.8%. The dimension of food security that was not met by students was food affordability.
Introduction
Food security is defined as a state of having reliable access to sufficient quantity of affordable and nutritious food (FAO, 2015). Despite the right of every person to be free from effects of food insecurity being declared during the World Food Conference of 1974 (GOK, 2008a), the effects linger in the global society. While it is well documented that food insecurity impacts many children and families, there is limited research on prevalence and impact of food insecurity among university students. In Kenya, 10 million persons and their households are highly food insecure (Kenya Food Security Steering Group, 2008). Families may qualify for relief food programme from government or non-governmental organizations to help them become food secure. However, university students have not been included in food assistance programmes. This leaves a large proportion of young adults aged 18–25 ineligible for food aid assistance in a stage of life where finances are limited (SNAP, 2016). Kenya looks towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. The first goal is “alleviation of extreme poverty and hunger”, which the country plans to achieve by reducing the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half (GOK, 2008). To achieve this, implementing the SDG’s plans at the grass root levels is imperative. This could ensure reduction of food insecurity. Food insecurity at higher learning institutions is not a new phenomenon, but it is not openly addressed especially at an institutional leadership level (Scholey, 2001). A key question is how the universities in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders can engage in finding common workable interventions on food insecurity at institutions of higher learning (IHL) (Munro, 2013). There should be some emphasis on the distribution of resources to populations that are vulnerable such as the student population at IHL, so as to alleviate food insecurity. Food security studies at Universities have used different methods of measuring and analyzing food insecurity. Estimates of food insecurity among university students ranged from 11% to 38.3% in South Africa (Munro, 2013), 12.7% to 46.5% in Australia (Masutha, 2011), 21% in Hawaii (Crush, 2010) and 39.2% in New York, USA (Freudenberg et al., 2001). Karatina University, where this study is going to be done, is a Chartered public university in Kenya, and is situated 15 km North of Karatina town in Nyeri County, Kenya. The University has six Academic Schools and has Campuses in Kagochi (Main), the School of Business at Karatina town and School of Education and Social Sciences at Itiati. The research methods used by the above other studies included considering the relationship between food insecurity and item expenditures and the use of trained students to do the interviews and gather data. Our study assessed the coping strategies by the students when they are unable to acquire food and establish the dimension of food security that the students do not meet. We used questionnaires administered randomly to students by the first author. Foods commonly consumed by students and food composition studies were carried out using food bought at the University cafeteria as students would buy normally for consumption. The detailed methods are further described in the appropriate sections below.
The objectives of the study were:
To establish coping strategies to food insecurity employed by Karatina university students
To establish foods commonly consumed by students of Karatina University
To estimate the typical daily energy intake by a student
To determine the dimension of food security that is not met by food insecure students
Methods and Procedures
A nutrition survey research design, random sampling and quantitative nutrient analysis was used to determine the dietary and non -dietary coping strategies to food insecurity and diets consumed by students when they are both food secure and insecure. The nutrient analysis determined the nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in frequently consumed foods in order to be able to calculate the daily energy intake from a daily food plan for both female and male students.
Questionnaires were administered to the sample of the student population residing in the main campus hostels and off main campus private hostels. Students were randomly picked within the university hostels to participate in the study after signing an informed consent.
The student population consisted of approximately 8000 students from diverse cultures mainly from Kenya. Students who reside within the university buy their food mainly from the University cafeteria, which offers meals at subsidized prices. The meals can be purchased using meal cards administered by the university catering department or payment in cash on service.
Sample size determination
The sample size comprised of 94 students (47 male and 47 female students). The sample size was calculated using the Yamane formula (2015). The total number of students residing in the main campus is approximately 1500 students. n= N ÷ 1+N (e)². Where n is the corrected sample size, N is the population size and e is the precision rate. n= 1500/1+1500(0.1) ² = 94 respondents (47 male + 47 female). The food samples were purchased at the university cafeteria and then measured using a 250 ml standard cup to ascertain the volume of liquid foods. A digital weighing scale calibrated to the zero mark was used to weigh food.
Proximate Analysis of Composite Common Foods
Protein, fat (using Soxhlet’s extraction method) and carbohydrate composition (using Anthrone method) were determined as described in AOAC (2005).
Protein
This was determined by the method in AOAC (2017) a procedure that is based on the Kjeldahl Method.
Determination of fat content
Fat content of the foods analyzed was determined by Soxhlet’s extraction method 920.85(AOAC, 2018), using a 5-g sample and petroleum ether (B.P. 40-60°C) as the solvent. The amount of fat extracted was calculated as follows.
Equation 1
Fat
Determination of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are first hydrolyzed into simple sugars using dilute hydrochloric acid. In hot acidic medium glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl furfural. The compound forms a green colored product with anthrone and its amount was determined at an absorption wavelength of 630 nm using an Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (Devindra, 2015).
Results and Discussion
Table 1 illustrates the strategies used by students to cope with food insecurity. The most used way of adjusting to food insecurity was sticking to simple and affordable meals such as ugali + cabbage/kales/spinach, or chapatti + beans stew, or rice + beans stew and rice+ cabbage/kales/spinach. Others are illustrated in Table 1.
Coping strategies
Number of students (%)
Borrowed food from friends
22.3
Stuck to simple and affordable food items
48.9
Reduced expenditure on airtime
18.1
Skipped a meal in a day
8.5
Used all of the above strategies over different periods (1 day-3 months)
2.2
Table 1: Students’ Coping Strategies to Food Insecurity
Note: the first four coping strategies were used by 97.8% of the sample student population. The remaining 2.2% of the respondent population used some of the four coping strategies inconsistently.
Table 2 shows the meals and quantity consumed based on gender. The most consumed meal was chapatti + beans/green grams at 73.4% and 68.1% for male and female students, respectively. Chapatti is normally a hard-to-get food as wheat flour tends to be expensive to buy and the process of making it is tedious and so it tends to be expensive.to buy. So when it is sold cheaply at the University cafeteria, students take advantage of its availability.
It is high in fat because liberal amounts of oil or fat is used to make them, unlike the Indian Nan. As it is cooked with liberal amounts of fat/oil, it is a satiety and fullness inducing food. Fat gives flavor to foods and high fat in the chapatti makes it a favorite Kenyan food generally. The least consumed meals were ugali + beans/green grams at 5.3% and 3.2% by male and female students, respectively. Ugali is the favorite Kenyan staple cereal food and it is cheap. It is a food that makes one feel satisfied for long. So a student wishing to get full and remain satiated for a good part of the day running from one lecture to another would preferably buy a meal with Ugali as part of it. Meals consisting of red meat were hardly consumed due to the cost and also its low availability. It is rarely cooked as the sales can be low in a situation where students try to keep expenditure on food as low as possible. The least consumed food commodity by both genders was animal protein. Animal protein foods were not consumed daily due to the high cost of the commodities. However, female students consumed more milk and dairy products as well as fruits than male students. Hence they would potentially be healthier than the male students-their diets would probably contain higher protein content with a good supply of the essential amino acids and minerals including calcium from animal foods such as eggs and dairy products.
Most students also consumed considerable amount of plant foods, which are low in saturated fatty acids, but high in fibre and phytates (these included beans, green grams, and green leafy vegetables)-these are generally regarded as healthy foods. Cooking probably reduced the effect of phytates and fibrous food components to bind dietary minerals and therefore the bioavailability of minerals would not be affected much despite the students consuming predominantly plant-based meals (Castillo, 2007).
Food
Quantity
% Male
Quantity
Conclusions
Female students consumed more diverse foods (including more eggs, milk and dairy products) than male students. Male students consumed lower amounts of animal proteins and fruits than the females, though both genders consumed less animal protein foods than recommended for their stage of life. The students lived mainly on plant-based foods.
A majority of the students who took part in the survey were food insecure due to an apparent shortage of money to buy food with. The most used strategy to stretch the money available, in an effort to try to meet the daily food needs, was borrowing food from friends and neighbors, sticking to simple, low-priced food items, skipping some meals sometimes daily, but definitely once or twice every week of the month. The major cause of food insecurity among the students was food affordability.
Recommendations
The study recommends:
The University establishes food/cash-for-work programme for needy students
The university management sets up a support system for food insecure students to enable them acquire adequate and good quality food, which is likely to enhance health, a positive factor for academic success
That University management starts an awareness campaign and offer a range of training programmes to educate and inform students on the negative impacts of hunger and poor nutrition on general health and learning outcomes
Further studies be done on income level of students, parents and guardians who support students financially
Acknowledgement
We appreciate the students for their cooperation and others for providing the necessary assistance to enable the completion of the survey.
Conduct and Funding of the Study
Michael Lokuruka provided the funding for the study and advised on the procedures to follow in the course of the study. Daniel Sewe developed the questionnaire and conducted the study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare there was no conflict of interest that needed declaration or avoidance.
Nature of study
This was a B.Sc. Honours in Food Science and Nutrition student project of Karatina University. To cite this article: Sewe, D.S. and Lokuruka, M.N.I. (2020). Coping Strategies to Food Insecurity Employed by Students of Karatina University, Kenya. J. Food Nutr. Sci. Res. 2(1): -------. DoI: -----/---.
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I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
Luiz Sellmann
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Zhao Jia
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery,
"The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
Thomas Urban
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient.
The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
Cristina Berriozabal
To Dear Erin Aust,
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable.
Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free.
I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
Dr Tewodros Kassahun Tarekegn
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
Dr Shweta Tiwari
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication.
This journal certainly publishes quality research articles.
I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dr Farooq Wandroo
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
Dr Anyuta Ivanova
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
Dr David Vinyes
My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.
Gertraud Teuchert-Noodt
To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice!
I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence
in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt,
during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication.
Thank
Prof. Elvira Farina
Dr Elvira Farina
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
