AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2637-8914/016
1 Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Norway, Box 1130 Blindern, 0318 Oslo, Norway, Telephone: +47 22844629.
2 Department of Animal and Aqua cultural Sciences, The Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Box 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; Telephone: +47 67232664.
*Corresponding Author: Arne Torbjørn Høstmark, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Norway
Citation: Høstmark AT., Haug A., (2019) Alpha Linolenic Acid Variability Influences the Positive Association between %Eicosapentaenoic Acid and % Arachidonic Acid in Chicken Lipids. J Nutrition and Food Processing, 2(2); DOI: 10.31579/2637-8914/016
Copyright: © This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Received: 31 October 2019 | Accepted: 04 November 2019 | Published: 08 November 2019
Keywords: alpha linolenic acid; arachidonic acid; eicosapentaenoic acid; chickens; random numbers
Body concentrations of Arachidonic Acid (AA, 20:4 n6) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA, 20:5 n 3) are influenced by diet. Previously, we reported that the concentration range of AA and EPA might explain that %AA and %EPA are positively associated, and that variability of OA (18:1 c9) influences this association. We now investigate whether also the range of ALA (18:3 n3) might influence the association between %AA and %EPA, using data from a diet trial in chickens. A broadening (narrowing) of ALA-variability made the %AA vs. %EPA scatterplot improve (be poorer), as observed both when calculating percentages of all fatty acids, and when using ALA, AA, and EPA only in the denominator.
Thus, the positive association between relative amounts of AA and EPA in breast muscle lipids of chickens is influenced by ALA variability. We raise the question of whether differences in concentration ranges between the many types of fatty acids (possibly acting via skewness) might serve as an evolutionary mechanism to ensure that percentages of fatty acids will be positively or negatively associated: a Distribution Dependent Regulation.
Fatty acids in blood and tissues are important in health and disease, and body amounts are influenced by diet [1, 2]. For example, ALA cannot be synthesized by mammals, and adequate dietary intake is essential for human health. Increased ALA intake may decrease proinflammatory cytokines [3].
Furthermore, it is well known that EPA (20:5 n3) and AA are metabolic antagonists [1, 4]. Eicosanoids derived from EPA may decrease inflammatory diseases [5, 6], improve coronary heart diseases [7, 8], and cancer [9]. However, in a systematic Cochrane Review of selected studies the beneficial effects of long-chain n3 fatty acids on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality was questioned [10].
AA is formed in the body from linoleic acid (LA 8:2 n6), a major constituent in many plant oils. This fatty acid is converted by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase into various eicosanoids, i.e. prostacyclines, thromboxanes and leukotrienes [1]. In contrast to the eicosanoids derived from EPA, those derived from AA, i.e. thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4), have strong proinflammatory and prothrombotic properties [1, 11]. Furthermore, AA derived endocannabinoids may have a role in adiposity and inflammation [12].
We previously suggested that ALA, and possibly other fatty acids, might be involved in the regulation of AA metabolism [13]. Thus, the inverse relationship between relative amounts of AA and oleic acid (OA 18:1 c9) in muscle lipids of chickens [13-15] might possibly be explained by inhibition by ALA of the synthesis of AA, and stimulation of OA formation [13]. Additionally, the fact that ALA is precursor of endogenous synthesis of EPA [1] may probably explain some of the health effects of ALA. Furthermore, it has been reported that a decreased level of the serum EPA/AA ratio may be a risk factor for cancer death [9]. Thus, when considering the beneficial health effects of foods rich in ALA, many of the positive effects would be anticipated if the fatty acid works to counteract effects of AA. It would appear, accordingly, that a coordinated regulation of the relative abundances of EPA and AA could be of physiological interest, so that an increase (decrease) in the percentage of one of these fatty acids would be accompanied by a concomitant increase (decrease) in percentage of the other. In accordance with these considerations, we reported that percentages of AA and EPA were indeed positively associated in breast muscle lipids of chickens [16-18].
Using random numbers in a computer experiment, we previously suggested [19] that, with 3 positive scale variables, two of which having low-number distribution, and low variability, as compared with the third variable, we might expect a positive association between percentages of the low-number variables, and a negative association between percentage of the high-number variable and percentage of each of the low-number variables. Furthermore, a decrease (increase) in the variability of either or both of the two low-number variables seemed to improve (make poorer) the association between their relative amounts. In contrast, a narrowing (broadening) of the distribution of the high-number variable seemed to make poorer (improve) the association between percentages of the low-number variables. These observations raise the question of whether the rules may apply for fatty acids. In support of this suggestion is our finding of a positive association between relative amounts of EPA and AA in breast muscle lipids of chickens [16-18], where these fatty acids are low-number variables with low variability (concentration range 0.13 – 0.24, and 0.25 – 0.42 g/kg for EPA and AA, respectively) relative to OA (range 1.04 – 8.56 g/kg), [20]. Alterations in the OA, EPA, and AA ranges strongly influenced the association between percentages of AA and EPA, in line with the general rules above [19]. For example, high OA variability improved the %EPA vs.
Chickens and Diet
We refer to our previous article [22] for details concerning the diet trial. In brief, from day 1 to 29 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chickens from Samvirkekylling (Norway) were fed wheat-based diet containing 10 g fat per 100 g diet. ALA (18:3 n3), a precursor of EPA, provided 15% of the fatty acids, and LA (18:2 n6), a precursor of AA, provided 21%. The n6/n3 ratio was 1.4. Energy content of the feed was about 19 MJ/ kg. ALA provided 2.5% of the energy, and LA 4%. Other components in the feed were: Histidine 0.1%, choline chloride 0.13%, mono-calcium phosphate 1.4%, ground limestone 1.3%, sodium chloride 0.25%, sodium bicarbonate 0.2%, vitamin A, E, D, K, B 0.18%, L-lysine 0.4%, DL-methionine 0.2%, and L-threonine 0.2%.
Calculations and Statistical Analysis
We first reanalysed our previously reported association between %EPA and
The present study is a spin-off study of a previously published diet trial, conceived and conducted by AH. ATH conceived and designed the present study, analyzed and interpreted the data, conceived the hypothesis of Distribution Dependent Correlations/-Regulation, and wrote the article. ATH emphasizes that the excellent diet trial of AH - and the nice correlations observed - were crucial for the hypothesis. AH contributed substantially to the interpretation of data and revising the article critically for important intellectual content. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The diet trial in chickens was performed in accordance with National and international guidelines concerning the use of animals in research (Norwegian Animal and Welfare Act, European Convention for the protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experimental and other Scientific Purposes, CETS No.: 123 1986). The Regional Norwegian Ethics Committee approved the trial, and the experimental research followed internationally recognized guidelines. There are no competing interests.
Descriptive Data
Descriptive data for the fatty acids under investigation are shown in Table 1. ALA, AA, and EPA contributed with 5.2, 3.4, and 2.0% respectively of all fatty acids. There was a striking difference in variability between ALA and the other fatty acids; ALA showed a 20-fold increase from lowest to highest value (CV 60.4%). In contrast to this, the variabilities of AA and EPA were low, with CV 9.7 and 11.1, respectively. Total weight of all fatty acids in breast muscle lipids of the chickens was 8.86 + 2.62 g/kg wet weight (mean + SD, n = 163).
| Fatty acid | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SD | % | CV |
| ALA | 0.12 | 2.40 | 0.53 | 0.32 | 5.2 | 60.4 |
Arachidonic acid | 0.25 | 0.42 | 0.31 | 0.03 | 3.4 | 9.7 |
| EPA | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 2.0 | 11.1 |
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the fatty acids under investigation (n= 163); minimum and maximum values, mean values (g/kg), with SD, % of total weight, and CV= (SD/Mean)*100.
Percentages calculated from total amount of fatty acids
Using the measured (physiological) values of ALL fatty acids, including ALA
We first investigate the association of
Since this work was confined to studying the association between percentages AA, and EPA, as modified by ALA, we do not know to what extent the suggested phenomenon of Distribution dependent correlations/- regulation is valid for other fatty acids as well. Furthermore, the analyses was based upon the fatty acid pattern in breast muscle lipids of chickens and we do not know the generalizability of our results, as related to different organs, tissues or compartments, and to various species, including man. Thus, the ALA influence on the association between
The present analyses show that the concentration range (distribution, variability) per se of ALA, EPA, and AA, including where on the scale they are placed, will determine (possibly via skewness of the %ALA distribution) whether percentages of the fatty acids will be correlated. High tissue ALA (likely to be diet related) might improve the positive
The study of which the present one is a spin-off, was funded by grant no 190399 from the Norwegian Research Council, and Animalia; the Norwegian Meat and Poultry Research Centre. We thank the collaborators at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences, and at the Animal Production Experimental Center, As, Norway, especially Nicole F. Nyquist.
Variability: the width or spread of a distribution, measured e.g. by the range and standard deviation.
Range: showing the largest and smallest values.
Distribution: graph showing the frequency distribution of a scale variable within a particular range. In this article, we also use distribution when referring to a particular range, a – b, on the scale.
Uniform distribution: every value within the range is equally likely. In this article, we may write “Distribution was from a to b”, or “Distributions of A, B, and C were a – b, c – d, and e - f, respectively”.
“Low–number variables” have low numbers relative to “high-number variables”.
ALA = Alpha Linolenic Acid (18:3 n3) OA = Oleic Acid (18:1 c9)
LA = Linoleic Acid (18:2 n6)
ALA = Alpha Linolenic Acid (18:3 n3) AA = Arachidonic Acid (20:4 n6)
EPA = Eicosapentaenoic Acid (20:5 n3)
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.
Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.
We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.
The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.
Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.
Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
