Digital Dependence in The Past Decade: A Systematic Review

Review Article

Digital Dependence in The Past Decade: A Systematic Review

  • Gonçalves LL *
  • Nardi AE
  • King ALS

*Corresponding Author: Lucio Lage Gonçalves, Digital Detox and Conscious Use of Technologies, Institute of Psychiatry (IPUB), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil.

Citation: Gonçalves LL, Nardi AE, King ALS, (2023), Digital Dependence in The Past Decade: A Systematic Review. J. Addiction Research and Adolescent Behaviour. 6(1); DOI:10.31579/2688-7517/059

Copyright: © 2023 Lucio Lage Gonçalves, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Received: 02 January 2023 | Accepted: 17 January 2023 | Published: 14 April 2023

Keywords: digital dependence; digital addiction; internet dependence; digital impacts; digital human behavior; digital addiction in organizations; digital addiction of employees

Abstract

Introduction: Digital Dependence is a person's persistent inability to regulate the use of digital devices, on which he or she has become highly dependent. Internet dependence has been described since the mid-1990s, and studies on this topic have intensified since 2010. This type of individual dependence has been the subject of considerable published literature, but in the collective setting of Organizations it is recent, offering the hypothesis that it can also be collective. To review literature on Digital Dependency from 2011 to 2020, considering three perspectives: (a) evolution of the theme during the period; (b) impacts on human behavior; (c) its stage in collective organizational settings. Method and Materials: Systematic literature review of English language articles, in three databases: PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo, using this article's keywords, refined by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). After analysis of Titles, Abstracts and Contents, 58 articles were selected as fitting those three perspectives. Results: Of 2,821 manuscripts initially selected, 51 of them displayed evolution, characteristics of digital dependence, and impacts on human behavior in line with the objectives of this study. Seven other articles were added after checking the biographical references of the first 51 articles for other references also meeting our research objectives. Research evolved geographically from three countries (2009-2016) to 17 (2017-2020), with 7 new scales for digital dependence. There were thirteen new revalidations of the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), with an increase from 1,000 to 13,000 volunteers in the two periods. The 58 manuscripts included in this survey confirmed the evolution of digital dependence and its impacts on human behavior. Conclusions: Geographical evolution, and an increase in the number of scales and of volunteers as well as their different profiles were described. New approaches reinforce evolution, and its impacts on human behavior. This study provides historical insight into Digital Dependence and opens new prospects for research on the differences between nations and people, between genders, between professionals and the need for further research in organizations.

Introduction

Over the past decade, digital dependence has been studied. The loss of a digital resource or access, whether by mistake or through some technical-operational defect of the technological structure, can trigger personal and even collective discomfort about reaching goals, characterized by elements of Digital Dependence, such as Nomophobia, which, in short, is the fear of losing access to digital resources [1].Nomophobia refers to discomfort, anxiety, nervousness or anguish caused by being out of contact with a mobile phone. There is a paucity of literature from India on this emerging mental health condition [2].Nomophobia is a disorder of the modern world involving symptoms of anxiety and nervousness caused by the lack of access to cell phones, computers and other communication devices [3]. In Brazil, an unpublished In Case Report from 2011 raised the hypothesis of Nomophobia as digital dependence in an individual with panic disorder with Agoraphobia, presenting cell phone dependence as an attenuator of the disorder [4].

Over the past ten years, attention to digital dependence, and in particular to nomophobic behavior, has grown exponentially with research in countries like Iran, Italy, Spain, Portugal, India, China, Turkey and others, with differentiated approaches, using new measurement scales and analyzing new correlations [5,6,7,8].

It has also been shown that individuals with high Nomophobia scores respond with stress and behavioral disengagement when confronted, providing insights that suggest preventive and interventional measures in the population [9].

Studies also reveal that Nomophobia impacts several areas of life, especially social, professional and academic relationships, due to dependence on the use of smartphones [10].

The presence of Nomophobia has also been reported in the professional field, with impacts on the organizational level [11].

At the end of this decade, a scale was also developed to assess the perception of organizational leaders as to the existence of Digital Dependence in their subordinates [12].

The increasingly intense digital transformations currently underway have a significant influence on people, justifying the continuation of studies such as these. The objective of this study was to review the literature on Digital Dependence (DD) in the past ten years, from three perspectives: (a) the evolution of DD; (b) impacts on human behavior; and (c) DD in organizational environments.

Method and Materials

This review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

We used the PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo, databases, in the English language, from January 2011 to December 2020, for searches done from March to September 2021, of articles on Literature Review, Meta-analyses and Randomized Controlled Trial. The ten-year period was chosen because a preliminary evaluation for this study identified a more significant volume of articles in the past decade.

We searched the 3 databases mentioned above using the keywords for this article, and found 2821 articles, which were then submitted to a PRISMA analysis by titles to assess alignment with our research objectives, leaving 160 articles. After analyzing the abstracts of these 160 articles, 106 were selected for reading, and 54 were excluded. After reading these articles, 51 were selected to support this study in terms of the literature reviewed (Figure 1). We analyzed the references of these 51 articles for other citations we had not found in our electronic search of the databases, totaling 1785 references. Based on their titles, 109 titles that might enrich this article were selected. After reading the abstracts of these 109, 7 were left with useful points to be included in this review. These were added to the 51 articles originally selected, totaling 58 articles, and they are listed in the last 7 positions (52 to 58) in Table 4. These 58 citations are shown in the Bibliographical References and quoted throughout this article. The study was carried out at the Delete Laboratory - Digital Detox and Conscious Use of Technologies, at the Institute of Psychiatry (IPUB) of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), which treats and guides individuals with evidence of excessive use of technologies who face impairments in their personal, professional, social and academic lives.

Since this is a literature reviewed, there was no contact with other persons to conduct the research, which was limited to the three databases mentioned above.

Inclusion Criteria

Literature review articles, meta-analyses and cross-sectional research related to experiences with DD individually and in collective environments, aligned with this article's keywords during the period 2011 to 2020 and that featured the evolution of digital dependence, and impacts on human behavior and on the collective perspective in an organizational setting.

Exclusion Criteria

Articles outside the period chosen for the study (2011-2020), articles only available in languages other than English, articles with small sample or that did not fit the objectives described in the Abstract.

Statistical Method

Since this is a literature review, the entire study worked with the descriptive relevance of the citations aligned with the research objectives.

Results

Using the seven keywords to search the three databases, this meta-analysis initially found 2,821 articles distributed according to Table 2, during the decade defined for the research. Table 1, below, presents the quantitative data for each database and keywords in a consolidated form for all 51 articles selected

Table 1: Selected articles, by database x keywords

This consolidation is the result of PRISMA's screening of the 2,821 articles.

Internet dependence appeared in 27 of the articles (48percentage of those selected), which is reasonable because the discussion on digital dependence began in the mid-1990s in the U.S., with studies on Internet dependence. The second keyword with the highest number of selected articles was Digital Addiction, with 11 articles (22percentage).

Main findings

Regarding the three perspectives adopted here (digital dependence evolution, impacts on human behavior, and organizational digital dependence) to evaluate the theme in the past 10 years, our results highlighted the following points.

Regarding the three perspectives adopted here (digital dependence evolution, impacts on human behavior, and organizational digital dependence) to evaluate the theme in the past 10 years, our results highlighted that the geographic expansion was evident in the presence of new countries that are studying this phenomenon and contributing to an increase in research and manuscripts. New approaches have generated new digital dependence measurement scales, while revalidating existing scales such as the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q). Surveyed samples (2017-2019) add up 13,000 volunteers. Compared to 2009-2016, with 1,100 volunteers, there was an average monthly growth of 4,000percentage. The number of articles inserted for the period 2017-2019 was 23, which was 77percentage of the total number of articles inserted (30) in less time than the 2009-2016 period.

A survey of 612 students showed a significant relationship between smartphone addiction and Nomophobia as an element of digital dependence. They may have the same characteristics, as long as they are associated with problematic cell phone use.13 Similar results on the relationship between smartphone use and Nomophobia were found in a survey of 409 students in Malaysia [14].

In the regarding Impacts on individual human behavior a considerable number of researchers suggest that most intensive users of virtual devices develop dysfunctional symptoms that can have severe effects on functional and social areas of life [15].

To assess and identify Internet gaming disorder, for example, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, in its fifth version (DSM-5) suggests 9 indicators. When an individual is found to have five of them, he/she can be diagnosed with Internet Gaming Disorder within a period of twelve months. The nine items are: (1) Preoccupation with gaming; (2) Withdrawal symptoms when gaming is taken away; (3) Tolerance; (4) Unsuccessful attempts to control or reduce participation in games; (5) Loss of interest in real life; (6) Excessive use of video games despite being aware of the problems they can cause; (7) Has deceived family members, therapists or others regarding the amount of gaming; (8) Use of internet games to escape or mitigate negative moods; (9) Has jeopardized or lost a significant relationship or job, because of participation in games.

The psychological disorder known as "Internet Addiction" is a recent development, which has emerged with the dramatic increase in internet use worldwide. In a survey of over 57 middle school students (13 to 18 years old) in Korea, significant associations were observed between internet addiction and school level, parental education, and alcohol use [16].

Another study examined factors related to Internet Addiction in elementary school students in Taiwan, where 1,045 children diagnosed with depression were heavy users of this technology. Results showed that time and frequency of Internet use accounted for 39.2percentage of the variance in Internet Addiction [17].

Problematic Internet Use (PIU) is also a major problem among Chinese adolescents. Little is known about associations of PIU with physical and psychological health, warranting investigation into its prevalence and testing its relationship with psychosomatic symptoms and life satisfaction among adolescents in China [18].

Evidence supports growing calls for the prevention of excessive smartphone and social media use, and has shown how this distraction affects academic and work performance and productivity [19].

With gaming disorder now included in the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Code of Diseases (ICD-11), it is becoming increasingly valuable as an indicator of how this finding impacts general and functional health [20].

Visual symptoms related to excessive screen use due to Internet Addiction have been reported in the literature on the subject [20].

The inclusion of gaming disorder in the ICD-11 by the WHO was a significant step forward in the understanding of digital addiction [21]

Childhood myopia, heart rhythm, sleep and depression disorders, and more recently "Addiction" and uncontrolled central brain functions initiated by lack of exploration and outdoor light have been identified as real risks [22].

There is a significant relationship between the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) score, Beck`s Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck`s Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and Short Form 36 (SF-36) Score. Positive for the first three and negative for SF-36, in a survey using these four scales [2].

Nomophobia is an emerging behavioral problem which merits attention. Increasing awareness is needed of the harmful effects of smartphone addiction. In a survey of 451 students, 303 displayed average Nomophobia rates [23].

Four dimensions of Nomophobia have been highlighted as components of digital dependence: not being able to communicate, losing connectedness, not being able to access information, and giving up convenience, in a survey of 141 students who demonstrated at least two of these dimensions [24].

The increased use of new technologies and virtual communication means that personal computers, tablets and mobile phones cause changes in daily habits and individual behaviors.3

In the Digital Dependence in organizational settings, similar habits are observed in organizations and should also be dealt with by Psychology and Psychiatry. When companies require employees to be available at any time and place, this imposes a need to care their health and well-being [11].

Information and communication technologies can change the way we form relationships and socialize with those around us, with both positive and negative effects, depending on how we use or abuse it [25].

Such shifts also have impacts on relationships in organizational environments, by transforming organizational culture in significant ways.

To promote greater awareness about digital influence in the collective environment of business organizations and institutions in general, the Delete Laboratory on Digital Detox and Conscious Use of Technologies developed a tool called the "Scale to Assess Leaders' Perceptions about their Workers' Digital Addiction" (the EPLDDE scale) to evaluate leaders’ perceptions of the presence of digital addiction among the people they lead [12].

Using the keywords to query the three databases with the PRISMA method, we consolidate our electronic search in the following map.

Figure 1: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)

Quantitative distribution of the queried articles (2011-2020) in the 3 academic bases and debugging until inserted articles (tables 2 and 3).

Table 2: Quantitative distribution of articles searched per data-base using PRISMA

Table 3: Quantitative distribution of selected articles per year

Of the following 58 articles, 51 were selected by PRISMA and 7 others from references in those 51 articles. Articles 1 to 19 are PubMed. Articles 20 to 25 are from PsycInfo and articles 26 to 51 from the Web of Science. Finally, articles 52 to 58 are the 7 articles extracted from the 1,785 references in the other 51 selected articles.

Article/Year/ Location/Data BaseObjectiveMethodSample/SDFEvolutionImpactsDD Orgs
PubMed      

1.Burr C, Taddeio M, Floridi l, 2020

USA

PubMed

Discuss digital well-being, focus on the ethical implications for individuals and societyThematic literature reviewNot specified Yes, because it introduces a new topic in the digital discussionYes, because dealing with well-being directly involves human behaviorYes, because well-being is an impor­tant issue in organiza­tional processes.

2.Hoek RJA 2017

Holland

PubMed

Assess employees for attention at work and any stressful situations.Application of the Stress Prevention at Work protocol, and assess outcomesNot specifiedYes, because it expands the discussion of digital use, in this case in the workplace.Yes, because it is about developing work activities using digital mediaYes, because it is about digital use at work

3.Tereshchenko S, Kasparov E, 2019

PubMed

Review the literature and available knowledge on biological risk factors for Internet Addiction in adolescentsLiterature review69 articles as the final selection for the study.Yes, because it makes a connection between biological risks and Internet Addiction (IA)Yes, because it discusses risks to humansNot applicable

4.Elyasi, F et al, 2018.

Irán

PubMed

Translate and Validate NMP-Q (Nomophobia Questionnaire)English to Persian, EFA, Varimax Rotation

425 students (Medical Science) 

Male=187 

Female=238  

Yes, because it expands knowledge to a country with another languageYes, the use of NMP-Q gains breadth and helps understand digital dependence in human behaviorNot applicable

5.Davishi, M et al, 2019.

Iran

PubMed

 

Investigate dimensions

from Nomophobia 

(NF) 

Cros-cutting study with NMP-Questionnaire. 100 students (Medical Sciences).Yes, because it introduces 4 new dimensions of NFYes, because the dimensions discussed (Anger, Discomfort, Anxiety, Insecurity) relate strongly to human behavior.Not applicable

6.Bragazzi, NL et al, 2019

Italy

PubMed

 

 

 

 

Explore coping styles in nomophobic subjects.

Transversal Study with youth with NMP-Q. Correlational 

Analysis with Brief COPE Questionnaire

403 individualsYes, because it brings new perspectives on NF reactions 

Yes, because the dimensions discussed relate to human behavior (Stress

Denial

Self-blame

Self-distraction

Venting

Use of emotional

instrumental support

Yes, because these aspects of human behavior are relevant in organiza­tional envi­ron­ments.

7.Gutiérrez-Puertas, L 2019.

Spain/ Portugal

PubMed

 

 

Comparative NF levels between Almeria and Bragança Nursing students Comparative study using NMP-Q 

258 individuals: 130 (Spain.) and 128 (Port.)

Male= 49

Female= 209 

Yes, because it compares the behavior of students from 2 countries.Yes, because it discusses social impacts in human relationshipsNot applicable

8.Al-Balhan, E.M et al (2018).

Kwait

PubMed

Develop and Validate NMP-Q Arabic Version Translate to NMP-Q Arabic and application.

451 students

Male= 280

Female= 171

Yes, because it creates a new version in another culture (NMP-Q Arabic version)Yes, because it reaches more people regarding digital human behavior.Not applicable

9.Basu, S et al, 2018.

India

PubMed

 

 

Develop and Validate MP Dependency Scale and assess the burden and factors associated with Mobile Phone (MP) addiction – like behaviorQuiz Application - Mobile Phone Addiction Scale - MPAS 

388 students. Male=233 

Female=155  

AA=21 

Yes, because it is a new scale about NF YesNot applicable

10.Aguilera-Manrique, G, 2018

Spain

PubMed

 

 

 

Analyze relationship between NF and Distraction associated with student use of SF during clinical practice 

Cross-sectional study. NMP-Q adapted to Spain and questionnaire.

Use of SF associated with restrictive work policy.

304 Nursing students

Male=82 

Female=222  

IM = 22.7

NF treatment with restrictions on use of SF at work.Yes, because restrictions on digital use impact human behaviorIn profes­sional perfor­mance, distraction is very important to assess or­ga­niza­tional results.

11.Olivencia-Carrión, Ma et al, 2018.

Spain

PubMed

 

 

 

 

 

Study the relationship between temperament, personality and NF QANIP - Questionnaire Application and Temperament and TCI-R Character Inventory Revised Questionnaire 

968 interviews

Male=182

Female=785

IM= 23,19

Yes, because it is a new study on NC x TemperamentYes, because temperament and personality have to do with human behavior.Not applicable

12.Csibi, S, 2018

United Kingdom, Romania and Hungary

PubMed

 

 

 

 

Validate Hungarian version of the Smartphone Application Dependency Scale-SABAS to track dependency risk.Used SABAS, NMP-Q and BSSS - Brief Sensation Searched Scale and Health PHQ - 9 Questionnaire.

240 individuals 

Male=155 

Female=85 

IM= 25,4

Yes, because it expands the use of another NF scale.Yes, because it enhances research on DDNot applicable 

13.Gentile AD et al, 2017

USA

PubMed

 

 

Analyze the topic based on current status emphasizing etiology and treatment.Literature ReviewNot specifiedYes, because it opens up new ways of researching DDYes, because the treatment of DD falls within the context of human behaviorNot applicable

14.Argumosa-Vilar, L et al, 2017

Spain

PubMed

 

 

 

Demonstrate 4 Elements of Nomophobia MPIQ Online Application 

242 students 

Male=111 

Female=131  

Yes, because it brings a new vision: Correlation between NF and psychological variables 

Yes, because it deals with important aspects of human behavior (Self esteemExtroversionConsciousness

Emotional stability) produced by NF

Not applicable 

15. James C et al, 2017

USA

PubMed

Understand the known impacts and research gaps in these areas to support the use of media that contribute positively to 13-18-year-oldsLiterature ReviewNot specifiedYes, because it brings a diverse view of DD, seeking the appropriate use of digital media.Yes, because the proper use of the media interferes with human behavior.Not applicable

16.King et al, 2014

Brazil

PubMed

Describe MP use and investigate emotional changes Questionnaire on MP use comparing Panic and Agoraphobia patients 

120 volunteers

Male=28 

Female=92

Yes, because the comparison of Panic with Agoraphobia and NF is a new approach.Yes, because Panic and Agoraphobia are inherent themes of human behaviorNot applicable

17.King et al, 2010

Brazil

PubMed

 

 

Verify SF Impacts on Panic DisorderCase Report with 1 patient with panic disorder plus Agoraphobia and NF1 patientYes, because it is the first Study on NF in Brazil Yes, because it found mobile as patient safety impacting their behavior.Not applicable

18.Brand M, Young KS, Laier C, 2014

USA

PubMed

Summarize key views and findings about Internet addiction with a focus on the link between control processes and the symptoms of Internet addictionReview of Narrative LiteratureNot specifiedYes, because it updates important aspects of DD and discusses control processes vs. Internet addictionsYes, because it deals with issues inherent to human behavior.Not applicable

19. Kuss DJ, 2013

Hungria

PubMed

Review current perspectives on Internet gaming addictionLiterature ReviewN=4374 video-games playersYes, because it updates perspectives on DD and generates new studiesYes, because there is consistent evidence of behavioral changes from video game addiction.Not applicable
PsycInfo      

20.Jianling &Chang, 2018

China

PsycInfo

 

 

 

Validate NMP-Q in ChinaApplied NMP-Q 966 users of SFYes, because results corroborate previous validations in Spain, Italy and Iran.Yes, because it impacts behavior directly.Not applicable.

21.Anshari et al, 2016

Brunei

PsycInfo

 

 

 

 

Investigate behavior and impact on SF use, including gender differentiation Application of specific questionnaire with 6 sections and 31 questions 

589 volunteers 

Male=312

Female=277  

Yes, because gender is statistically significant in relation to the use of SF, consequently of NF.Yes, because  half of volunteers cannot live without SF. Women use more social networks.Not applicable

22.Arpaci, I et al, 2017

Turkey

PsycInfo

 

 

 

Investigate effects of mindfulness mediation in the relationship between genders, bonds and NF Applied the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, NF Questionnaire and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale - MAAS

450 volunteers 

Male=131 

Female=319

IM= 21,94

Yes, because it shows new NF Correlations with Gender, Mindfulness, and Bonds. Yes, because it discusses aspects of behavior such as the impact of mindfulness on NF Not applicable 

23.Yldirim, C & Correia, AP, 2015) 

USA

PsycInfo

 

 

 

Validate use of the NMP-Q Exploratory qualitative research, semi-structured interviews and application NMP-Q Questionnaire 301 young adults Yes, because it investigates different nomophobic features, comparing men and women.Yes, because women are more susceptible to NFNot applicable

24.King, ALS et al, 2013

Brazil

PsycInfo

 

Studying NF as an auxiliary behavior in identifying anxiety Application of Nomophobia Rating Scales, Medication1 patientYes, because it observes nomophobia as a sign of another mental disorder.Yes, because habit changes may reveal mental disorders.Not applicable

25. Andreassen CS et al, 2016

Norway

 

 

 

To study the relationship between addictive use of social networks and video games and the symptoms of psychiatric disorders.

Cross-sectional study examining

demographic variables, symptoms of TDAH, TOC, x RS and Videogames and depression

N=23533 adults (16-88 years old) Yes, because it discusses the relationship of symptoms and gaps about the use of digital resources.Yes, because the variables discussed are inherent to human behavior. Not applicable
Web of Science      

26.Arpaci et al, 2019

Turkey

Web of Science

 

 

Investigate impact of individual mindfulness difficulties in NF Applied the NF Questionnaire and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale - MAAS 

491 students 

Male=152 

Female=339  

AA= 22,08

Yes, because it studies mindfulness as NF therapy by statistical correlation In absence of Mindfulness technique, NF is manifested by dependence on SF NF can be attenuated with mindfulness 

27.Fitz, N et al, 2019

India

Web of Science

 

 

Test about batching notifications could improve psychological well-beingOnline application with own application.

237 volunteers 

Male=192 

Female=45 

AA=30,3

 

Yes, because shows human reactions to digital communications Yes, because digital communications impact HBNot applicable

28.Coskun, S & Muslu, GK, 2019

Turkey

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

Define problematic use of mobile phones (PMPU) and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) among adolescents.Applied Scale for problematic mobile phone use – PU and Fear of Missing Out Scale – FoMOS)

1630 students 

Male=724 

Female=896 

Yes, because 2 new scales broaden findings about NF 

Yes, because students with the highest PMPU scores

and FoMO have lower motivation / performance

Not applicable 

29.Rosales-Huamani, JA, 2019

Peru

Web of Science

Identify new symptoms through increased use of SFApplied Test of Mobile Phone Dependence – TMD Brief

461 students 

Male=97 

Female=364 

Yes, because it is one more scale to study NFYes, because it analyses Anxiety, compulsion to use SF and feeling of panic.Not applicable

30.Bartwal & Nath, B (2019)

India

Web of Science

 

 

 

Identify NF levels in medical students Applied NMP-Q 

451 students 

Male=171 

Female=280 IM=20,7

Yes, because it explores aspects of Nomophobia in medical studentsVolunteers with SF dependence: 78 volunteers: NF severe; 303: average; 70: lightweight impacting activitiesNot applicable

31.Adawi, M et al, 2019

Italy

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

Identify NF levels Applied NMP-Q and Brief Symptom Inventory - BSI

N=403 volunteers

Male=160 

Female=243 

IM=27,91

Yes, because it shows new behavioral relationships with NF Yes, because being without SF Contact Causes Irritability and Anxiety, Attention Deficit, Negative Social Impacts, at Work and in Academic LifeNot applicable

32. Gonçalves, LL et al, 2019

Brazil

Web of Science

Validates a scale to assess organizational leaders' perception of their employees' digital dependence.Evaluate the semantics, breadth and consistency of items until final formatting of instrument after cross-sectional application.N=312 volunteers, from a federal state-owned companyYes, because it extends DD studies to the organizational collectiveYes, because it concerns people at work and their use of digital technologyYes, because it specifically deals with validating a scale for assessing Organizational DD applicable to organi­zations.

33.Yasan, AK & Yildirim, S., 2018

Turkey

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

 

 

Investigate student with NF considering 4 aspectsApplied Turkish Nomophobia Questionnaire

146 students 

Male=55 Female=91 

 

Yes, because it shows NF's New Approach: Analyze Not Being Able to Communicate, Lost Connectivity, Not Accessing Information, and Convenient Dropout Yes, because it shows strong correlation between NF and Internet use. Lack of digital communication interferes with HBNot applicable

34.Yildiz, D, 2018

Turkey

Web of Science

 

 

 

Investigate predictors of NF and SF dependence among adolescents Applied NMP-Q and Turkish NF Question­naire.612 students IM between 12 and 18.Yes, because it correlates demographic variables and academic performance Yes, there is a significant relationship between SF addiction and NF.Not applicable

35.Oliveira, TS et al, 2018

Brazil

Web of Science

 

 

NF in the environmental organizationCase ReportReport without sample Yes, because is a Collective treatment of NF Yes, because Nomophobic dependent behaviors Yes, because talk about organizational collective impacts 

36.Parasuraman, S et al, 2017

Malaysian

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

Study mobile phone addiction behavior and awareness on electromagnetic radiation. Multivariate NF according to 8 variables.

409 students

Male=198

Female=211  

IM= 22,88

Yes, because it shows more correlation with NF and with a new perspective.

Yes, because volunteers have wrist and hand pain.

Students develop dependence on SF

Not applicable

37.Trom, D, 2016

USA

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

 

 

Classifying NF as an SF Addiction DisorderLiterature Review on PsycInfo and Google Scholar117 manuscripts studiedYes, because NF has correlation with Smartphones Addiction. Proposed inclusion in DSM – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder.Symptoms as anxiety, depression and low self-esteem confirm NF as DD. The compulsive use of SF causes significant impairment of social, physical and cognitive functions.Not applicable

38.Shin, L, 2014

Korea and USA

Web of Science

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Investigate Internet dependent usage severity and factors involved

Compares students in 2 countries.

 

 

597 volunteers

283 USA

314 Korea

>18 years

Mobile Internet Usage Index - MIUI

 

Yes, because it compares culturally different countries Yes, because unemployed and young students are more susceptible to digital addiction. Korean women are more dependent than American women.Not applicable

39.Chu ML, Lee YH, 2013

Taiwan

Web of Science

 

Explore factors related to Internet addiction among studentsData collection with the Internet Addiction Questionnaire Scale - IASN=1045 volunteersYes, because it boosts the topic in the educational contextYes, because Internet Addiction is correlated with human behaviorNot applicable

40. Cao H, Sun Y, Wan Y, Hao J, Tao F., 2011, China 

Web of Science 

 

 

Investigate the prevalence of PIU and test the relationship between PIU and psychosomatic symptoms and life satisfaction among adolescents in China.A cross-sectional studyN=17599 volunteersYes, because it discusses PIU x psycho-somatic symptoms.Yes, because both themes correlate with human behavior.Not applicable

41.Heo J et al, 2014

Korea

Web of Science. 

 

Identify the association of factors with Internet addiction.

Dual Regression

 

N=57.857 high school students (13-18 yrs)Yes, because it broadens the discussion with new intervening factorsYes, because it deals with variables related to human behaviorNot applicable 

42.Sung M. et al, 2014 

Korea

Web of Science

 

Assessing psychiatric symptoms in adolescents using the Internet Addiction Scale (IAS)Multi-regression to assess the association of factors with 8 psychiatric problems.N=1722 individuals from 13-15 years old.Yes, because it introduces Psychiatry into the debate on adolescent DDYes, because they are strongly behavior-related issues.Not applicable 

43.Zhang H. et al, 2015

China

Web of Science

 

Investigating the relationship between PIU, temperament and frustrationApplication of specific autonomous questionnaire

N=660 Chinese high school students

 

Yes, because it is a geographical evolution, with two new variablesYes, because temperament and frustration are intrinsic to human behavior.Not applicable

44.Macur M. et al, 

2016

Slovenia

Web of Science

 

Studying the prevalence of problematic Internet use among adolescentsApplication of specific questionnaires to identify problematic Internet useN=6029 individualsYes, it is an evolution because it goes deeper into aspects about Internet with teenagersYes, because it explicitly involves aspects of adolescent behavior.Not applicable 

45.Reyes MES et al, 2018 

Phililipines

Web of Science

 

Explore the relationship between FoMO and PIU among Filipinos.Test battery with 3 measurement scalesN=1060 FilipinosYes, because it goes deeper into discussing 2 important DD topicsYes, because FoMO and PIU are typically human behavior issues Not applicable 

46.Chao C-M et al, 2020

Taiwan

Web of Science

Investigate the relationship between inappropriate physical and mental health as a factor facilitating PIU and examine the moderating effect of communityEmpirical cross-sectional survey with self-reporting questionnairesN=5211 students in TaiwanYes, because it extends to other countries, strengthening studies on mental health and effects of the Internet as a PIUYes, because they are themes explicitly related to behavior.Not applicable 

47.Pontes HM et al, 2014

Portugal

Web of Science

 

Validation of the Internet Addiction Test - IAT in PortugueseApplying the IAT to adapt to PortugalN=593 Portuguese citizensYes, because it is an alternative for Internet addiction assessment.Yes, Internet Addiction is entirely a part of human behavior.Not applicable 

48.Pontes HM et al, 2015

China

Web of Science

 

Review the concept of prevalence, neural processes and treatment implicationsLiterature reviewN=123 manuscriptsYes, because it discusses new DD variablesYes, because it shows important aspects of DD behavior.Not applicable 

49.Sharma M 2019

India

Web of Science

 

Assess the relationship of nomophobia with depression, anxiety and quality of life in adolescentsApplication of the NMP-Q, BDI, BAI and SF-36 questionnaireN=1,386 students aged 14 to 17Yes, because it correlates Nomophobia with DD and quality of lifeYes, because it addresses 3 elements of human behavior.Not applicable

50. King et al, 2020

Brazil

Web of Science

 

Identify conse­quen­ces of using smartphones while performing professional tasks.Literature ReviewN=14 selected articles.Yes, because it deals with digital use in the professional environmentYes, because it impacts the work behavior of health professionals.Yes, because it is about digital use in health care work environ­ments.

51.Odaci H et al, 2016

Web of Science

 

Investigate the relationship between Internet addiction and college students.Collection with 3 instruments: (a) Internet Dependence Questionnaire - IDQ; (b) Offer Self-Image Questionnaire-OSIQ; (c) Personal Data Form - PDF

N=623 students

F=454

M=169

Yes, because it uses new scales to go deeper into DD studies.Yes, because DD is part of the context of human behavior. Not applicable
Articles referenced by the first 51 articles      

52. Thouvala et al, 2020

United Kingdom

 

Evaluate distraction caused by intensive use of smartphones having an impact on human behaviorTest applied with distraction measuresN=143 students in the UK.Yes, because it deals with a little-explored DD correlation.Yes, because distraction was identified with the tests performed. Not applicable

53.Mylona I et al, 2020

Grecia

 

 

Conduct a narrative review on the negative effects of Internet Addiction to gamesNarrative reviewN=246 initial articles, with 12 aligned to the theme at the endYes, because it intensifies the debate about DD in the field of electronic games.Yes, because it deals with the impact of games on behavior. Not applicable 

54.Dresp-Langley, B, 2020

França

 

 

Provide information about the multiple risks of overexposure to digital environmentsExploratory reviewNot specifiedYes, because it brings a discussion about risks in all digital environmentsYes, because people are part of the digital environment and the risks they incur impact them directly. Not applicable 

55.Balhara YPS et al, 2020

Southeast Asia

 

 

 

Review the existence of studies on problematic Internet useLiterature Review in PubMed and Scholar One databasesN=549 initial studies with 38 final studiesYes, because it reviews the PIU theme

Yes, because problematic Internet use is a human behavior issue.

 

 Not applicable

56.Gokcearslam et al, 2016

Turkey

Research the use of smartphones by college studentsOnline research gathering data on the role of the use of smartphones, self-regulation, general self-efficacy and cyberloafing in universities

N=598 volunteers

F=423

M=175

Yes, because it broadens discussion of smartphone use in the university environmentYes, because smartphones today are vital elements of human behavior. Not applicable

57.Shunyu Li, 2020

China

 

 

 

Study negative life events and Internet Addiction among adolescents and young adultsMeta-analysis in Chinese and English databases

N=85 articles

N=86833 Chinese adolescents and young adults

Yes, because it has consistent samples of both articles and volunteersYes, because it deals with Internet Addiction in students' lives Not applicable

58.Becirovic, Pajevic,

2020

Croatia

 

 

Analyze the Internet addiction behavior of children and adolescents during the pandemicAnalysis of data available in the literature in databases and textbooks.Not specifiedYes, because it deals with the addiction in the context of the pandemicYes, because it is about the use of the Internet in the pandemic Not applicable 

Table 4: Selected Articles - Legend: AA= Average Age; BAI= Beck`s Anxiety Inventory; BDI=Beck`s Depression Inventory; BSI= Brief Symptom Inventory DD = Digital Dependence; EFA = Exploratory Factorial Analysis; FA = Factorial Analysis; FoMOS = Fear of Missing Out Scale; HB=Human Behavior; HBI = Human Behavior Impact; IAS= Internet Addiction Scale; IAT= Internet Addiction Test; IDQ= Internet Dependence Questionnaire MAAS=Mindful Attention Awareness Scale; MIUI= Mobile Internet Usage Index; MP = Mobile Phone; MPAS= Mobile Phone Addiction Scale; NF = Nomophobia; NMP-Q = Nomophobia Questionnaire; OSIQ= Offer Self-image Questionnaire; PDF= Personal Data Form; PMPU= Problematic Use of Mobile Phones; SDF = Socio-Demographic Functions; SF=Smartphone; SF-36= Short Form 36

Discussion

The key-words Internet Dependence (27 selected articles) and Digital Addiction (11 selected articles) are referential for research on Digital Dependence. On the other hand, the keywords Digital Impacts (5) and Digital Human Behavior (4) have fewer articles selected because they are consequences of the first two. They can be considered dependent variables and, for this reason, appear less frequently in this type of query. The growth of research on Digital Dependence may change this picture.

In even fewer numbers, there are findings related to the keywords Organizational Digital Addiction and Digital Addiction of Employees, since there is still less research on collective settings, where this dependency belongs.

In terms of perspectives on the Evolution of Digital Dependence in the past decade the production of studies and manuscripts evolved between 2009 and 2019, divided in two blocks: 2011 to 2015 and 2016 to 2020 (5 years). In the first period, articles produced in the USA, UK and Brazil prevail, while in the latter period (2016-2020) other countries emerged, such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, Kuwait, India, Iran, Romania, China, Turkey, Hungary, Peru, Sweden, Israel, and Hong Kong, with this geographic evolution revealing greater interest in contents about digital dependence.

Specifically in Turkey, one of the countries with one of the highest growth rates of Internet users in the world, 16 to 24-year-olds account for 73percentage of Internet use [26].

This expansion also includes comparative studies between students from different countries, such as Spain and Portugal, aiming to identify specificities between them8, similar to what we see for students in the United Kingdom, Romania and Hungary [27].

We find a similar situation comparing the severe use of mobile Internet by Americans and Koreans, with geographic expansion, but different dependent behaviors in each28, in addition to significant differences between male and female outcomes, which also appeared in research in Brunei [29].

In Iran, the Yldirim & Correia Nomophobia Questionnaire - NMP-Q (2015)31 was translated and validated30, with high reliability (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.983) corroborating results in Spain8, Italy9 and India [32].

In the Philippines, a study with 1,060 individuals demonstrated the relationship between Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), Social Media Use (SMU) and Problematic Internet Use (PIU) among Filipinos, showing a significant relationship of FoMO with SMU and PIU [33].

In Croatia, expanding the list of countries studying digital dependence, a Literature Review focused on childhood and adolescence discussed and demonstrated important aspects of how this type of addiction relates to gambling disorders, Internet Addiction Disorder, Internet Gambling Disorder and Sex Addiction [34].

Regarding the number of articles, for the 51 articles selected in table 3, we find a substantial increase from the first to the second half of the decade, as 38 of the 51 (74percentage) were published from 2011 to 2016, while only 13 (26percentage) has been published in the first half of the decade, a growth of nearly 200percentage. From 2011 to 2015 there were 0.22 articles per month, while from 2016 to 2020 there were 0.63 articles per month, on average.

Research into Internet Addiction (IA) has grown rapidly over the past decade. The topic has generated a great deal of debate, particularly on how to define IA conceptually, as well as many methodological limitations. Relevant issues include definition and characterization, incidence and prevalence rates, associated neuronal process and implications for treatment prevention and patient-specific considerations. It is necessary to discuss a definition for IA [35].

In Slovenia, a survey using the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire Short-Form (PIU - SF6), with N=6,029 individuals, aiming to identify problematic Internet use, found high time of use and mistakes due to attention spans [36].

Another important scale, the Social Networking Time Use Scale – SONTUS, was used in the Philippines to assess the relationship between time of use and problematic internet use, PIU and FoMO, and also confirmed this correlation [33].

During the period of this study there was a significant increase in revalidations of scales, in India23 and Iran30, where the Nomophobia Questionnaire - NMP-Q31 was found suitable to their respective cultures, enhancing the evolution of the theme and of the scales themselves.

The NMP-Q questionnaire was applied and revalidated in China with 966 smartphones users37 and was also revalidated with comparable results in Spain6 and Italy [38].

Other validated scales have confirmed the expansion of Digital Dependence, such as Scale for Problematic Mobile Phone Use (PU), which measures overuse of mobile phones, the correlation between mobile phone and mental variables and possibilities of negative effects of prolonged mobile phone use, in addition to the Fear of Missing Out Scale (FoMOS) [39].

A study40 in 2017 also identified the relationship between mindfulness and Nomophobia, with a different scale: the Nomophobia Questionnaire – NF, also used in the USA with analogous results [24].

Symptoms such as anxiety, compulsion, and anxiety and panic were identified41 with the Test of Mobile Phone Dependence (TMD Brief), confirming these symptoms of dependence in Nomophobia. This has also been confirmed in Iran, for anxiety, using the NMP-Q [5].

In Spain, a study with the Mobile Phone Involvement Questionnaire (NMPIQ), which found a correlation between self-esteem, extroversion and awareness with emotional stability related to Nomophobia, innovated in treating Nomophobia related to psychological and not only demographic variables [10].

A study using the Smartphones Applications Based on Addiction Scale - SABAS, concluded that severity, anxiety and stress of depression are associated with problematic use of smartphones27. The same review also indicated the Smartphone Addiction Scale - Short Version - SAS - SV for the evaluation of Nomophobia [27].

In India, the Mobile Phone Addiction Scale (MPAS) was produced and validated by 388 medical students [32].

Besides the validation of new scales, others already in use were revalidated in other languages, such ​​as the NMP-Q [8].

Along the same lines, a psychometric evaluation of the Arabic version of the NF Questionnaire (NF) was developed in a pilot study at Kuwait University.42 This expansion also took place in 12 other countries between 2017 and 2019.

In Brazil, in 2020, the Delete Laboratory Book of Scales presented fifteen statistically validated scales published in specialized journals, to assess various forms of digital dependence such as dependence on social networks, on electronic games, on organizations and several others [43].

This expansion also took place in 12 other countries between 2017 and 2019.

In Portugal, a study with 593 Portuguese students adapted the Internet Addiction Test - IAT via translation-back-translation to local socio-demographic variables [44].

d) Sample Profiles / Target Audience

The increase in the use of digital devices also brought a geographic expansion of digital dependence, along with the need to adapt measuring tools to understand Nomophobia as an element of this dependence. New tools were created for new audiences such as doctors, nurses, students, employees and organizational leaders, among others.

We also observe that from 2017-2019 the number of volunteers exceeded 13,000 versus just over 1,000 from 2009-2016. This significant increase of participants in Nomophobia research is a strong element of evolution.

During the past decade, research on "addictive technological behaviors" has grown substantially. Research has also demonstrated a strong association between the addictive use of technology and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Cross-sectional research with 23,533 individuals (16-88 years old) examining demographic variables, confirmed that the relationship between attention-deficit disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety and depression could explain variance in the addictive use of two types of modern on-line technologies: social networking sites (women) and video games (men) [45].

Recent studies and reports from international organizations show that Internet users comprise 42.3percentage of the world population, with consistent growth. Turkey has the fastest growing number of users, ranking 18th in the world, with 16-24-year-olds as the fastest growing segment (73percentage). Internet use among young people in Turkey and elsewhere on the planet has been studied to interpret its causes and consequences [26].

e) DD between the sexes

Between 2017 and 2019 interest in assessing prevalence by sex rose consistently. Before this period no one discussed results by sexes.

Nomophobia, as digital dependence, was investigated among students in Iran, to identify feelings of anger, discomfort, anxiety and insecurity in the correlation of this phenomenon with age, sexes, educational level and duration of smartphone use. Women feel less anger and, consequently, less discomfort than men when deprived of digital access [5].

Sex was also found to be statistically significant in smartphone use, in a survey of 589 participants. Women make greater use of social networks, messaging and cell phones, with more marked misuse than men [29].

Researchers have also identified a greater impact on women of the relationship between mindfulness and Nomophobia [40].

The results confirm that women are more susceptible to digital dependence, particularly Nomophobia, than men [31].

The US and Korea also stand out for a greater dependence of women than men [28].

These differences between male and female reactions and outcomes provide a new perspective for Nomophobia analysis, as an element of digital dependence.

From the Perspective of Impacts on Human Behavior

a) In professional activities

The use of mobile phones during other activities at work may compromise job performance, due to the deviation of attention away from the task at hand.

A survey of nursing students in Spain using smartphones during internship activities revealed a statistically positive relationship between Nomophobia and smartphone-associated distraction [6].

There is also a concern that digital addiction expressed as Nomophobia can reveal problems in organizations related to the demand for employees to be available at all times, wherever they may be [11].

b) social commitment

Articles address Nomophobia as a Digital Dependency, as a modern age phobia, introduced into our lives as a product of interaction between people and mobile information and communication technologies, especially smartphones [31].

Nomophobia is an emerging social behavioral problem that merits attention because of the varying degrees of severity of impairments caused by cell phone dependence [23].

It is classified as a disorder in which compulsive smartphone use causes significant impairment of social, physical and cognitive functions [46].

Nomophobia affects different areas, especially social, professional and academic relationships, due to dependence on smartphone use [10].

Studies on smartphone well-being surveyed in our research show anxiety and FoMO (Fear of Missing Out) when participants receive no notifications, affecting their social behavior, while those receiving them regularly feel more productive and satisfied [47].

Addiction to electronic games on the Internet shares similarities with other addictions, including substance dependence, at molecular, neurocircuitry, and behavioral levels. These similarities include dopaminergic and neuronal activity changes in brain morphometry, as well as impaired impulse control, behavioral inhibition, and overall cognitive functioning. As psychiatrists seek to understand mental disorders through underlying physiological diseases, this provides further incentive to continue research into the neurobiological underpinnings of mental health problems, including Internet gaming addiction [48].

About the relationship with primary disorders, the relationship between anxiety and stress of depression has been demonstrated in a systematic review, which concluded that there is a relationship with Nomophobia [27].

Digital dependence, and particularly Nomophobia, is a feeling of discomfort or anxiety experienced by individuals when unable to use cell phones or use their facilities [3].

People with panic disorder showed significant increases in anxiety, tachycardia, respiratory changes, tremors, sweating, panic, fear and depression, relative to the absence of their cell phones [1].

Using the TDM Brief Test of Mobile Phone Dependence, 461 students confirmed the following symptoms related to Nomophobia: (a) anxiety; (b) compulsive use of smartphones; (c) feelings of anxiety and panic [41].

Increased anxiety along with irritability when not in contact with the digital device were identified as symptoms that characterize Nomophobia as technological dependence [38].

There is a significant relationship between depression and anxiety. It is an emerging mental health condition, especially in male adolescents [2].

However, an inverse relationship between depression and excessive smartphone use is also possible. In this case, the emptiness of depression might be partially or temporarily overcome by digital distractions [27].

Due to its amplitude and relationship with anxiety, depression and low self-esteem, Nomophobia as smartphone dependence became a candidate for inclusion in the DSM - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder [46].

With gaming disorder included in the upcoming version of the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of diseases (ICD-21), it is becoming especially important to have a clear idea of the impact of this discovery on general health and overall function [20].

In Taiwan, 5,211 adolescents participated in a cross-sectional survey with results indicating that cyberbullying, Internet pornography, Internet fraud, and community bonds have positively significant effects on problematic Internet use. Parental Internet attitude and behavior were found to significantly moderate the relationship between inappropriate physical and mental health, community bonds and PIU [49].

Problematic Internet Use (PIU) among students has become a significant mental health concern. There are risk factors associated with PIU that deserve further research to better consolidate this perspective [50].

In Korea, 1,722 individuals between the ages of 13 and 15 participated in a survey to assess factors of the Internet Addiction Scale and its association with psychiatric symptoms (8 psychological problems), in which the researchers observed that the overall IAS was significantly associated with Somatic, Immature, Thought, Attention, Delinquent and Aggressive behaviors.

About the transformation of interpersonal relationships, the transformation of individuals through digital practices and the manifestation of Nomophobia also alters interpersonal relationships.

Digital technologies can change the way we form relationships, with positive and negative effects, depending on how we use or abuse them.

Cooperation significantly reduces nomophobic levels, with a demonstrable relationship between nomophobia and personality [51].

Late childhood and adolescence are an especially vulnerable and at-risk period for the onset of behavioral addiction. The prevalence of behavioral addiction in adolescence is very high and some of its forms (mainly internet-related addictions) become more prominent with excessive time spent online [34].

Concerning well-being of individuals, young people's well-being, their social connectedness, and personality traits are at the center of concerns about impacts of digital life. A complex interplay of individual factors, types of engagement with digital media, and experiences in media contexts all inform outcomes related to well-being, social connectedness, empathy, and narcissism. Negative consequences must be investigated, and positive outcomes of digital media use must be capitalized on, especially given its increasing presence in people's lives [52].

In a survey of 660 Chinese high school students, Problematic Internet Use (PIU) was found to have a negative relationship with effortful control and a positive relationship with feelings of search and anger/frustration [53].

The sudden appearance and spread of Internet Addiction in the adolescent population, in association with the rapid escalation of Internet content being consumed and the broad availability of smartphones and tablets with internet access, poses a new challenge for classical addictology and demands urgent solutions. The rapid appearance and development of Internet Addiction in adolescents is associated with a rapid increase in the spectrum of Internet contents, along with universal availability of mobile access to the Internet [54].

Neuropsychological and neuroimaging research on excessive and addictive Internet use is a rapidly growing scientific field that has revealed interesting results. Their scientific and clinical contribution helps understand the neurobiological basis of Internet addiction. Results converge towards an understanding that addictive Internet use is linked to functional brain changes involving parts of the prefrontal cortex, accompanied by changes in other cortical regions such as the temporal and subcortical regions, for example the ventral striatum. These results, together with others from neuropsychological studies, suggest that prefrontal control processes are reduced in individuals addicted to Internet use and may be related to patients' loss of control over this use [55].

The evolution of DD raises concerns over digital well-being related to the impact of these technologies on what it means for humans to live a good life in an information society [56].

Our individual and social well-being is now intimately connected with the state of our information environment and the digital technologies that mediate our interaction with it. This demands solutions for urgent ethical issues about impacts on our well-being [55].

An exploratory revolution focused on critical elements in recent literature shows an unequivocal trend toward excessive increases in time spent online at home, especially by children and young people. It puts their physical and psychosocial development, as well as their overall health, at risk in the short and long term [22].

Negative events in people's lives have shown a positive correlation with Internet Addiction (IA) and, although moderate, this correlation occurs in all geographic regions, genders, and levels of social development [57,58].

In the organizational environments, to minimize effects of stress at work, digital platforms and collaborative learning networks are being developed to manage stress at work. This is a positive application [59].

However, the improper use of digital devices in organizations can cause harm to employees' physical and mental well-being.

Collective environments begin to exhibit the symptoms of dependencies that compromise people’s quality of life. The construction of a duly validated scale called "Scale to assess leader`s perceptions about employees' digital addiction" (EPLDDE) has contributed to studies on organizational functions, especially quality of life [12].

On the world stage, unlimited Internet access by smartphones has influenced social, cultural and economic relations, making the world faster and more efficient. Health professionals must be concerned about caring for the majority of their patients’ use of smartphones in the process. Inappropriate use of these devices at work may have severe impacts not only in the user’s own life but also on a community’s health. Is necessary to observe how these professionals’ fit smartphones into their worktime [21].

People's "digital well-being" is the term used to refer to the impact of digital technologies on what it means to live a life that is good for a human being in various domains across three broad themes: positive computing, personalized human-computer interaction, and self-determination [56].

The digital well-being approach to these themes encompasses the workplace. 

There are many studies showing high levels of Nomophobia in healthcare professionals who use their smartphones regularly during their clinical internship. This suggests a need for policies to restrict such use, to avoid compromising their performance and their own well-being [6].

Individuals with high Nomophobia scores respond with stress and behavioral disengagement when confronted. Knowing how subjects with Nomophobia react provides insights and a focus for preventive and interventional measures in the population [9].

Limitations

The novelty of the subject, which seeks to show impacts on human behavior of digital technologies used without awareness, is one of this study’s limitations, but it must be unveiled for the betterment of human behavior and of the social, physical, and mental implications for digital technology users, individually and collectively.

In a world undergoing more and more digital transformation, the uninformed use of these technologies can be harmful to people. The enormity of the task of minimizing such effects can be a limitation when it comes to arousing interest in general.

Because it is a relatively new subject, collective Digital Dependence is emerging as an issue demanding further discussed.

Conclusions

Our results show a geographical evolution of Digital Dependence, evolving significantly from 3 countries (2009-2016) to 17 countries (2017-2019) with consistent results, with an increase of about 20 times more articles between the two periods, a substantial increase of 7 new scales and 13 validations of NMP-Q in several countries (Table 3). New sample profiles and analyses of differences between men and women drew attention to the need to assess this difference in nomophobic behaviors between the two sexes. The study demonstrates that Digital Dependence is present in the collective settings of organizations. All the articles reviewed here report impacts of Nomophobia on professional and social activities, as well as significant relationships with primary psychological disorders that redesign interpersonal relationships. These results confirm the achievement of our research objectives.

Digital Dependence in the collective environments of organizations, on the other hand, requires further research to identify digital dependence scenarios and create mechanisms that can improve the use of digital technology in organizations. 

Author Participation

Gonçalves prepared the literature review and wrote the article; Nardi supervised and guided the preparation of the text; King supervised the literature review and the final form of the text. All authors contributed and approved the final version.

Acknowledgements

Institute of Psychiatry (IPUB) of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ).

Funding

This study was not funded

Conflict of Interest

All of the authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Data Availability Statement (DAS)

These is a literature review. The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article in every table (4) and Figure (1) into the article.

References

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Dr Tong Ming Liu

I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.

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Husain Taha Radhi

I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.

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S Munshi

Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.

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Tania Munoz

“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.

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George Varvatsoulias

Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.

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Rui Tao

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.

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Khurram Arshad

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.

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Gomez Barriga Maria Dolores

The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.

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Lin Shaw Chin

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.

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Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.

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Dr Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.

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Dr Maria Regina Penchyna Nieto

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.

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Dr Marcelo Flavio Gomes Jardim Filho

Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”

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Zsuzsanna Bene

Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner

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Dr Susan Weiner