AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
research article
*Corresponding Author: Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Karatina University, P.O Box, 1957-10101, Karatina, Kenya.
Citation: Daniel, S. and Michael N.I. Lokuruka. (2022). Coping strategies to food insecurity employed by students of karatina university, kenya. J. Nutrition and Food Processing. 5(3); DOI: 10.31579/2637-8914/092
Copyright: © 2022 Michael N.I. Lokuruka. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 12 March 2022 | Accepted: 18 April 2022 | Published: 20 May 2022
Keywords: coping strategies; food insecurity; university students; keny
It has been reported that 1 in 3 Kenyans suffers from severe food insecurity and poor nutrition. This study aimed to establish the level of food insecurity among Karatina University students and coping strategies employed. A nutrition survey research design and random sampling was done with a sample size of 94 undergraduate students, who resided within the university. The students filled questionnaires for the details required. The proximate composition of frequently consumed foods was estimated by AOAC methods. Dietary and non-dietary coping strategies to food insecurity and diets consumed by students were established. The percentage of students who were food insecure was 27.85% as evidenced by skipping a meal due to lack of money variously for 1-3 days in a month. Also, 22.3% borrowed foods from friends and neighbors, 48.9% stuck to simple and affordable meals, which were either, rice+beans/green grams or ugali+cabbage/ leafy green vegetables) or ugali+beans/green grams. The non-dietary strategy showed 18.1% students reducing expenditure on airtime, while 2.1% sold assets-mobile phones and laptops. The most commonly consumed meals by both genders were chapatti + beans/green grams at 24.5% or rice + beans/ green grams or cabbage/kales/spinach either at 12.8%. The dimension of food security that was not met by students was food affordability.
Food security is defined as a state of having reliable access to sufficient quantity of affordable and nutritious food (FAO, 2015). Despite the right of every person to be free from effects of food insecurity being declared during the World Food Conference of 1974 (GOK, 2008a), the effects linger in the global society. While it is well documented that food insecurity impacts many children and families, there is limited research on prevalence and impact of food insecurity among university students. In Kenya, 10 million persons and their households are highly food insecure (Kenya Food Security Steering Group, 2008). Families may qualify for relief food programme from government or non-governmental organizations to help them become food secure. However, university students have not been included in food assistance programmes. This leaves a large proportion of young adults aged 18–25 ineligible for food aid assistance in a stage of life where finances are limited (SNAP, 2016). Kenya looks towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. The first goal is “alleviation of extreme poverty and hunger”, which the country plans to achieve by reducing the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half (GOK, 2008). To achieve this, implementing the SDG’s plans at the grass root levels is imperative. This could ensure reduction of food insecurity. Food insecurity at higher learning institutions is not a new phenomenon, but it is not openly addressed especially at an institutional leadership level (Scholey, 2001). A key question is how the universities in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders can engage in finding common workable interventions on food insecurity at institutions of higher learning (IHL) (Munro, 2013). There should be some emphasis on the distribution of resources to populations that are vulnerable such as the student population at IHL, so as to alleviate food insecurity. Food security studies at Universities have used different methods of measuring and analyzing food insecurity. Estimates of food insecurity among university students ranged from 11% to 38.3% in South Africa (Munro, 2013), 12.7% to 46.5% in Australia (Masutha, 2011), 21% in Hawaii (Crush, 2010) and 39.2% in New York, USA (Freudenberg et al., 2001). Karatina University, where this study is going to be done, is a Chartered public university in Kenya, and is situated 15 km North of Karatina town in Nyeri County, Kenya. The University has six Academic Schools and has Campuses in Kagochi (Main), the School of Business at Karatina town and School of Education and Social Sciences at Itiati. The research methods used by the above other studies included considering the relationship between food insecurity and item expenditures and the use of trained students to do the interviews and gather data. Our study assessed the coping strategies by the students when they are unable to acquire food and establish the dimension of food security that the students do not meet. We used questionnaires administered randomly to students by the first author. Foods commonly consumed by students and food composition studies were carried out using food bought at the University cafeteria as students would buy normally for consumption. The detailed methods are further described in the appropriate sections below.
The objectives of the study were:
A nutrition survey research design, random sampling and quantitative nutrient analysis was used to determine the dietary and non -dietary coping strategies to food insecurity and diets consumed by students when they are both food secure and insecure. The nutrient analysis determined the nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in frequently consumed foods in order to be able to calculate the daily energy intake from a daily food plan for both female and male students.
Questionnaires were administered to the sample of the student population residing in the main campus hostels and off main campus private hostels. Students were randomly picked within the university hostels to participate in the study after signing an informed consent.
The student population consisted of approximately 8000 students from diverse cultures mainly from Kenya. Students who reside within the university buy their food mainly from the University cafeteria, which offers meals at subsidized prices. The meals can be purchased using meal cards administered by the university catering department or payment in cash on service.
Sample size determination
The sample size comprised of 94 students (47 male and 47 female students). The sample size was calculated using the Yamane formula (2015). The total number of students residing in the main campus is approximately 1500 students. n= N ÷ 1+N (e)². Where n is the corrected sample size, N is the population size and e is the precision rate. n= 1500/1+1500(0.1) ² = 94 respondents (47 male + 47 female). The food samples were purchased at the university cafeteria and then measured using a 250 ml standard cup to ascertain the volume of liquid foods. A digital weighing scale calibrated to the zero mark was used to weigh food.
Proximate Analysis of Composite Common Foods
Protein, fat (using Soxhlet’s extraction method) and carbohydrate composition (using Anthrone method) were determined as described in AOAC (2005).
Protein
This was determined by the method in AOAC (2017) a procedure that is based on the Kjeldahl Method.
Determination of fat content
Fat content of the foods analyzed was determined by Soxhlet’s extraction method 920.85(AOAC, 2018), using a 5-g sample and petroleum ether (B.P. 40-60°C) as the solvent. The amount of fat extracted was calculated as follows.
Fat
Determination of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are first hydrolyzed into simple sugars using dilute hydrochloric acid. In hot acidic medium glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl furfural. The compound forms a green colored product with anthrone and its amount was determined at an absorption wavelength of 630 nm using an Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (Devindra, 2015).
Results and Discussion
Table 1 illustrates the strategies used by students to cope with food insecurity. The most used way of adjusting to food insecurity was sticking to simple and affordable meals such as ugali + cabbage/kales/spinach, or chapatti + beans stew, or rice + beans stew and rice+ cabbage/kales/spinach. Others are illustrated in Table 1.
Coping strategies | Number of students (%) |
Borrowed food from friends | 22.3 |
Stuck to simple and affordable food items | 48.9 |
Reduced expenditure on airtime | 18.1 |
Skipped a meal in a day | 8.5 |
Used all of the above strategies over different periods (1 day-3 months) | 2.2 |
Table 1: Students’ Coping Strategies to Food Insecurity
Note: the first four coping strategies were used by 97.8% of the sample student population. The remaining 2.2% of the respondent population used some of the four coping strategies inconsistently.
Table 2 shows the meals and quantity consumed based on gender. The most consumed meal was chapatti + beans/green grams at 73.4% and 68.1% for male and female students, respectively. Chapatti is normally a hard-to-get food as wheat flour tends to be expensive to buy and the process of making it is tedious and so it tends to be expensive.to buy. So when it is sold cheaply at the University cafeteria, students take advantage of its availability.
It is high in fat because liberal amounts of oil or fat is used to make them, unlike the Indian Nan. As it is cooked with liberal amounts of fat/oil, it is a satiety and fullness inducing food. Fat gives flavor to foods and high fat in the chapatti makes it a favorite Kenyan food generally. The least consumed meals were ugali + beans/green grams at 5.3% and 3.2% by male and female students, respectively. Ugali is the favorite Kenyan staple cereal food and it is cheap. It is a food that makes one feel satisfied for long. So a student wishing to get full and remain satiated for a good part of the day running from one lecture to another would preferably buy a meal with Ugali as part of it. Meals consisting of red meat were hardly consumed due to the cost and also its low availability. It is rarely cooked as the sales can be low in a situation where students try to keep expenditure on food as low as possible. The least consumed food commodity by both genders was animal protein. Animal protein foods were not consumed daily due to the high cost of the commodities. However, female students consumed more milk and dairy products as well as fruits than male students. Hence they would potentially be healthier than the male students-their diets would probably contain higher protein content with a good supply of the essential amino acids and minerals including calcium from animal foods such as eggs and dairy products.
Most students also consumed considerable amount of plant foods, which are low in saturated fatty acids, but high in fibre and phytates (these included beans, green grams, and green leafy vegetables)-these are generally regarded as healthy foods. Cooking probably reduced the effect of phytates and fibrous food components to bind dietary minerals and therefore the bioavailability of minerals would not be affected much despite the students consuming predominantly plant-based meals (Castillo, 2007).
Food | Quantity | % Male | Quantity
|
Female students consumed more diverse foods (including more eggs, milk and dairy products) than male students. Male students consumed lower amounts of animal proteins and fruits than the females, though both genders consumed less animal protein foods than recommended for their stage of life. The students lived mainly on plant-based foods. A majority of the students who took part in the survey were food insecure due to an apparent shortage of money to buy food with. The most used strategy to stretch the money available, in an effort to try to meet the daily food needs, was borrowing food from friends and neighbors, sticking to simple, low-priced food items, skipping some meals sometimes daily, but definitely once or twice every week of the month. The major cause of food insecurity among the students was food affordability. Recommendations The study recommends: We appreciate the students for their cooperation and others for providing the necessary assistance to enable the completion of the survey. Michael Lokuruka provided the funding for the study and advised on the procedures to follow in the course of the study. Daniel Sewe developed the questionnaire and conducted the study. The authors declare there was no conflict of interest that needed declaration or avoidance. This was a B.Sc. Honours in Food Science and Nutrition student project of Karatina University. To cite this article: Sewe, D.S. and Lokuruka, M.N.I. (2020). Coping Strategies to Food Insecurity Employed by Students of Karatina University, Kenya. J. Food Nutr. Sci. Res. 2(1): -------. DoI: -----/---. Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources. Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases.
Thank you for all. Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article.
Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office.
I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports
I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office.
The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript.
And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help.
It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration. We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work.
Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal. The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent. Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal. Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field. Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive. Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal. Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI. This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal. Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing
We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers. As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal.
The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage.
The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful.
The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders.
In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders. Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery,
Editorial Coordinator,
I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office.
The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal. International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous. Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity.
The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article. Dear Erica Kelsey,
Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics
Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications.
We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site. I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article.
Have a good day! "We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay". I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far.
Keep up the great work. We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future. I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells. I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office. I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery.
The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent.
The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value.
I recommend this journal very much to colleagues. Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments. “The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”. Dear editorial department:
On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal.
Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner.
I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality.
Sincerely,
Rui Tao. Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal. Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent,
the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time. Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project.
I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality.
We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort. Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions,
I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients."
I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term. Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing.
¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨. Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions,
The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed.
The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies. Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing!
"I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!” Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner | ||||
