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Review | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2693-4779/048
*Corresponding Author: P D Gupta, Former, Director Grade Scientist, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India.
Citation: P D Gupta. (2021) The Mighty Microbiota: Regulator of the Human Body. Clinical Research and Clinical Trials. 3(5); DOI: 10.31579/2693-4779/048
Copyright: © 2021 P D Gupta. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 02 June 2021 | Accepted: 26 June 2021 | Published: 25 June 2021
Keywords: Keywords
Microbiota is a life line for human being, however if the balance in interspecies of microbiota is disturb, it can cause not only serious diseases but can kill also. Collectively the microbiotal species act as epigenetic factor for humans. First exposure to microbiota is in utero. The whole health programming of the individuals stars even before birth. C-section or fed formula fed babies are immunologically weaker than that of normal delivered and beast fed babies. For the lifelong good health of babies, Mothers should opt for vaginal delivery and breastfeeding for healthy newborn
Using mathematical modelling a team of researchers from Greece, Italy, and Spain in 2013 published an estimation of the number of cells in the human body. This paper put the number of cells at 37.2 +/- 0.81 trillion [4].
Later in 2016, Ron Milo [5] an associate professor at the Weizman Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel, and colleagues published an update. In fact, they performed two different calculations. The first one estimates the number of cells in a 100-kilogram male using an average cell volume of between 1,000 and 10,000 cubic micrometers. This gave them a "back of the envelope estimate" in a range of 30 to 40 trillion cells.
Next, they calculated the actual cell number of the five most common cell types in an average adult male, which account for 97 percent of the cells in the body. This led them to an estimate of 30 trillion cells, of which red blood cells make up 84 percent.
But human cells are not the only cells in our bodies. Although previous studies have estimated that there are 10 times as many bacteria in our bodies than human cells, Prof. Milo and colleagues revised this number to be around 38 trillion. Interestingly, although large in number, bacteria are much smaller than human cells, and they actually make up only 200 grams of total body mass [5]. But with nearly equal numbers of cells in our bodies, one could argue that we are as much bacteria as we are human, bringing the total number up to around 70 trillion.
Neonates generally acquire intestinal microbial communities within the first week of life with relative equilibrium reached within the first year. Infants delivered via caesarean birth have higher rates of colonization by environmentally acquired microbes such as Clostridium difficile and Klebsiella and Enterobacter species, and have enhanced colonization of the neonatal oral cavity and intestine by components of the skin microbiome. In addition, the Ureaplasma species as well as Mycoplasma hominis are associated with preterm birth.
All new born babies get their microbiota from mothers at the time of birth though some scientists believe that there is an exposure of microbiota to the preterm baby in order to felicitate to develop immune system. The delivery method influences infants' microbial makeup. University of Edinburgh-led team collected fecal samples at 10 time points from 46 babies born by Caesarean section and 74 babies born vaginally for analysis [6] The two groups of infants had different microbiomes,. It notes that mothers were only given antibiotics after having given birth and that there were still differences between babies that were bottle-fed, indicating that antibiotic exposure through breast milk couldn't account for the effect. Infants born via Caesarean section have more bacteria that are considered "bad" and fewer that are considered "good" resident among their gut microbiota, [7] which was Completed in 2012, characterized the microbiome composition of multiple body sites in healthy individuals of different ethnicities located in two separate cities (St. Louis, Missouri and Houston, Texas) in the United States. This multicenter effort showed that bacterial diversity, niche specificity, and microbial gene carriage patterns far exceeded what was initially suspected [8-12].
The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) * The Human Microbiome Project was a United States National Institutes of Health research initiative to improve understanding of the microbial flora involved in human health and disease. Launched in 2007, the first phase focused on identifying and characterizing human microbial flora. Established: 2007, Start date: 2008 Planned completion date: 2013 but completed in 2012 .
Humans acquire these bacteria during birth (especially vaginal delivery) and the first years of life, and they live with us throughout our lives. Somewhere between 300 and 1000 different species live in the gut, with most estimates at about 500. However, it is probable that 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species, with Faecalibacterium prausnitzii being the most common species in healthy adults. There is a greater diversity of bacteria living on the human forearm than on any other part of the body, according to a new study [13] on average, 44 different types of bacteria reside on the forearm, compared with 19 species living behind the ear, says the study by the National Human Genome Research Institute in the US.
Anatomically microbiota is found on/in the human body sites are as follow:
A. Anatomical areas
Skin (especially the moist areas, such as the groin and between the toes), Conjunctiva respiratory tract (particularly the nose), Gastrointestinal tract(primarily the mouth and the colon), Urethra and bladder( urinary tract), Vagina, Placenta, Uterus, Oral cavity/ mucosa, Lung, Mammary glands, Ovarian follicles, Placenta,
B. Body Fluids
Gut: Conceptually, we should view these microbes as a newly discovered organ, weighing slightly more than our brains and nearly as vital. Gastrointestinal tract microbiota seems to have a major influence on microbiota present in the body elsewhere and diet (14). These microbes mostly live in the lower intestine (the colon) and outnumber all the other cells in the body put together. And they are regulated by various factors such as body weight, propensity to illness, immune system, appetite and mood.
According to recent research, the richer and more diverse the community of gut microbes are, the lower the risk of disease and allergies. Human gut microbiota directly influences health and provides an extra means of adaptive potential to different lifestyles and varies with diet, lifestyle and environment. This has been shown in animal tests and also in human studies comparing the microbes of people with and without particular diseases [15]. Meanwhile, there is mounting evidence that babies born via caesarean section miss out on some of the microbes they would obtain through a vaginal birth, which make them more vulnerable to obesity, allergies and asthma. So how can one restore healthy gut microbiota, increase the good bacteria in the body, and give a boost to healthy living.
1Increase fibre intake
Aim for more than 40g per day, which is about double the current averages. Fibre intake has been shown to reduce heart disease and some cancers, as well as reduce weight gain. Eat as many types of fruit and veg as possible, and try to eat seasonally. The variety may be as important as the quantities, as the chemicals and types of fibre will vary, and each support different microbial species. Good examples are artichokes, leeks, onions and garlic, which all contain high levels of insulin (a prebiotic fibre). Some vegetables like lettuce have little fibre or nutrient value.
Mention ‘bacteria’ and memories of food poisoning and nasty infections probably spring to mind. Polyphenols are antioxidants that act as fuel for microbes. Examples are nuts, seeds, berries, olive oil, brassicas, coffee and tea – especially green tea. Also, try to increase intervals between meals to give your microbes a rest. Occasionally skip meals or have an extended fast – this seems to reduce weight gain.
Eat plenty of fermented foods containing live microbes [16, 17] Good choices are unsweetened yoghurt; kefir, which is a sour milk drink with five times as many microbes as yoghurt; raw milk cheeses; sauerkraut; kimchi, a Korean dish made from garlic, cabbage and chilli; and soybean-based products such as soy sauce, tempeh and natto. In small quantities, alcohol has been shown to increase your gut diversity, but large amounts are harmful to your microbes and your health. Steer clear of artificial sweeteners like aspartame, sucralose and saccharine. These disrupt the metabolism of microbes and reduce gut diversity – in animal studies this has led to obesity and diabetes. Ditch the processed foods too, as these also upset microbes’ metabolism.
3Avoid City pollution
People living in rural areas have better microbes than city-dwellers. While you’re at it, dust off your trowel: gardening and other outdoor activities are good for your microbiome.
4 Keep pets
Studies have shown that people living with dogs have more microbial diversity.
5 Avoid antibiotics and non-essential medicine
6 Antibiotics destroy good and bad microbes, and it can take weeks to recover, so don’t take them unless you need them. Their use is also associated with obesity and allergies in animals. Even common medications like paracetamol and antacids can interfere with microbes.
7 Don’t be hygiene obsessed
Fastidious washing and overuse of antibacterial sprays may not be good for your gut.
8 Spend time close to a lean person
Studies in mice have shown that leanness may be contagious. Microbes from a lean animal can reverse obesity in a fat one, but strangely, obesity microbes are harder to transmit than lean ones.
9 Avoid food and vitamin supplements
Only a tiny proportion of supplements have been shown to be beneficial. Instead, focus on eating a diverse range of real food to get all your nutrients.
Normal Skin microbiota: Skin is the body's largest organ and its first line of defence against microbiota even though it harbours between one million and one billion microorganisms per square cm. The surface of the skin is never sterile even when it is clean; it is covered with a mixture of microbes called normal. Most of the time, these microbes do not cause illness and do not stimulate the immune system however if there is a break in the skin or if the immune system is weakened, then the microbes may cause a wound or skin infection.
In one survey of skin microbiota it is found that, Propionibacteria, Corynebacteria, and Staphylococcus spp. makes more than 62% of sequences detected at 20 body sites. Moist, oily, and dry regions were each associated with different levels of microbial species diversity, which was lowest in oily regions that were associated with the sebaceous glands. Using samples from all body locations, biological sex could be determined 80.0% of the time, which is greater than expected by chance. However, when biological sex was classified for each body location, the thigh could be correctly classified 100% of the time (19). One can therefore determine biological sex consistently based on the thigh region, but cannot classify sex with the same certainty using any other skin region.
The epidermis layer is relatively hostile to microbes because it is constantly shedding and also associated with antimicrobial compounds, low in moisture, high acidity, hydrophobicity, and salinity. Wounds are breaks in the integrity of the skin and tissues. They may be superficial cuts, scrapes or scratches but also include deeper cuts, punctures, burns, or may be the result of surgical or dental procedures.
Superficial skin infections
Superficial infections occur primarily in the outer layers of the skin but may extend deeper into the underlying (subcutaneous) lay [20].
Examples of bacteria that can cause skin infections include:
Bacteria that are often normally found on the skin (normal flora), such as species of Staphylococcus (staph) and Streptococcus (strep), are common causes.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria, such as
Vibrio or Aeromonas species, often found in brackish water
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is associated with hot tubs.
Bacteroides and Clostridium species may cause deeper wound infections.
Tularemia—this infection is caused by Francisella tularensis bacteria. They primarily infect rabbits and rodents, but humans can get infections through tick or deer fly bites or contact with infected animals that can result in skin ulcers.
Anthrax—this is an infection caused by the bacteria Bacillus anthracis. It can infect the skin as well as the respiratory or digestive tracts. The bacteria live in the soil and primarily infect animals, such as cattle, deer, sheep and goats. Humans can be infected by handling the animals or their hair, hide, or meat.
Typical bacterial skin infections include [19, 20]
Infected hair follicles (folliculitis)
Boils (furuncles)
Collection of boils involving several hair follicles and deeper layers of tissue (carbuncles)
Impetigo—skin lesions and blisters (vesicles)
Pressure sores (bed sores) and ulcers—these may be found in people who are immobilized or bedridden for long periods of time
Cellulitis—an infection often involving the subcutaneous and connective tissue of skin, causing redness, heat, and swelling
Necrotizing fasciitis—a serious but uncommon infection that can spread rapidly and destroy skin, fat, muscle tissue and fascia, the layer of tissue covering muscle groups. This type of infection often involves Group a streptococci, which are sometimes referred to as "flesh-eating bacteria."
Examples of common fungal skin infections include:
Ringworm, Athlete's foot, Yeast infections cause by Candida species may occur in the mouth (thrush) or on other moist areas of the skin,
Examples of viruses that cause skin infections include: 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2) are responsible for a skin infection known as herpetic whitlow.
Skin and wound infections interfere with the healing process and can create additional tissue damage. They can affect anyone, but people with underlying conditions are at risk of slower wound healing and greater risk of wound infections. Examples of conditions that increase the risk of wound infections include:
Poor blood circulation, Diabetes, Weakened/suppressed immune system (e.g., HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipient), Low mobility or immobility (e.g., confined to bed, paralysis) and Malnutrition
When infections penetrate deep into the body into tissues such as bone, or when they occur in tissue that has inadequate circulation, they can become difficult to treat and may become chronic infections. Many infections remain confined to a small area. Others may persist and, if untreated, become more severe and spread further and/or deeper into the body. Some infections spread to other organs and/or into the blood (septicemia) and cause a body-wide (systemic) infection
Regulatory factors: The main factors affecting the normal human skin microbiota are skin location on the body, gender, geographical location, ethnicity, skin (thick or thin), antibiotics used, and application of cosmetics, age, and health conditions [21]. Female skin microbial communities were significantly more diverse than males, and it may be due to physiological differences in hormonal secretions which would change the skin texture, pH etc [22]. Wound and skin infections trigger the body's immune system and cause inflamation and tissue damage within the skin.
The definition of vaginal microbiota cannot be only related to the presence or absence of individual microorganisms even though; the vaginal microbiota is a compartment of the human microbiota [23]. The vaginal microbiota is considered as almost like a second immune system for women—it really protects women from all kinds of things, unique conditions of the vagina are characterized by a few microbial species, usually lactobacilli, which are able to utilize glycogen, which is under control of estrogens. Healthy women may be colonized with a non-lactobacillary microbiota whose (quality and quantity) is dependent on ethnicity of the woman. This microbiota is manifested by a low degree of diversity and by the high dynamics of changes of its composition under the influence of various exogenous and endogenous factors. Lactobacilli and other fermentative bacteria together with vaginal epithelial cells produce lactic acid and are responsible for acidifying vaginal milieu. Increase in diversity can be paradoxically associated with a dysbiosis such as bacterial vaginosis [24, 25]. Individual species of lactobacilli mainly Lactobacillus crispatus characterize the main community state types in the vagina. Apart from lactobacilli, healthy women may be colonized with a non-lactobacillary microbiota whose rate is dependent again on ethnicity. Non culture-based modern technologies revealed a complex and dynamic system mainly dominated by several species of lactobacilli. The normal and the abnormal vaginal microbiota are complex ecosystems of more than 200 bacterial species influenced by genes, ethnic background and environmental and behavioural factors.
The qPCR diagnostic approach had a sensitivity and specificity of respectively 93% and 93% for Nugent-defined BV. The prevalence of BV defined by Nugent score was 21%, whereas the prevalence of an abnormal vaginal microbiota was 28%. High concentrations of Gardnerella vaginalis and/or Atopobium vaginae were found out by qPCR. Aerobic vaginitis seems to be an immunological disorder of the vagina with influence on the microbiota, which is here dominated by aerobic bacteria (Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherichia coli).
The composition of microbiota is important, but it is only one of the basic attributes of normal vaginal microbiota, but not sufficient; that is the functional definition of vaginal microbiota in relation to its structure and dynamics, including the influence of ethnicity, physiological status of the vagina, and genetic disposition of woman. including the influence of ethnicity; lactic acid; pH; physiological status of the vagina; sexual hormones; sexual hormones historical and recent concept.; usually lactobacilli [26,27].
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