1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences, Balochistan.
2Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences, Balochistan.
*Corresponding Author: Nida Tabassum Khan, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences, Takatu campus, Airport Road, Quetta.
Citation: Iqra Mujeeb, Nida T. Khan, (2024), Marine Fungi Causing Diseases in Marine Organisms, J. Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology Research, 7(7); DOI:10.31579/2688-7517/189
Fungi are mainly terrestrial but can also be found in marine or estuarine habitats such as marine sediments, Arctic area, and sub-sea floor. These fungi are known as marine fungi. They are saprophytes and with the help of their symbiotic relationships, they help in recycling the nutrients. They also cause disease in plants, animals, and algae. Some cases are reported in Pakistan and Iran.
Introduction
Fungus is a eukaryotic group of micro-organisms that digests its food through the process of absorption (Carris et al., 2012). This heterotrophic group has its own kingdom with around 3.8 million species (Hawksworth et al., 2017). From single celled yeast to multicellular moulds, fungi are ubiquitous micro-organism exhibit variety of size, colours, and shapes (Blackwell 2011; Desardin et al., 2010; Lutzoni et al., 2004). The most appropriate definition of marine fungi is offered by Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer in 1979, “Obligate marine fungi are those that grow and sporulate exclusively in marine or estuarine habitat.”
Habitat
Fungi are mainly terrestrial but also aquatic (Brem et al., 2008; Le Calvez et al., 2009). The aquatic fungi that are found in ocean, sea etc. are called as marine fungi. They have been found in the marine sediments (Picard 2017), Arctic area (Rämä et al., 2017) and sub-sea floor (Orsi et al., 2013). 1255 specie has been claimed from marine realm (Jones et al., 2019).
Ecological importance
Marine fungi are saprophytes and with the help of their symbiotic relationships, they help in recycling the nutrients (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). From living organisms such as algae, guts of crustaceans, animals to sand, soil, mud and mangrove’s decaying leaves, wood sediments, the marine fungi grow on variety of substrates (Kohlmeyer & Kohlmeyer, 1979; Hyde, 1996).
Role in marine ecosystem
They have important ecological role in marine ecosystem: degradation of wood and non-woody substrate (Blanchette et al., 1990; Singh et al., 1990; Holt and Jones, 1983; Hawksworth et al., 1995),decomposition of animal’s decay (Kohlmeyer & Kohlmeyer, 1979). They also form symbiotic relationship with other organism like algae (Kohlmeyer & Kohlmeyer, 1979; Fletcher, 1975; McCarthy, 1991)and plants (Mason, 1928; Rozema et al., 1986; Boullard, 1958; Nicolson, 1960; Khan, 1974).
Pathogenic aspects of marine fungi
Despite the fact that fungi have its ecological importance as a decomposer they also involved in causing diseases in different organism i.e., parasitic relationship with aquatic plants, animals and algae (Muhsin, 1977).
Diseases in plants
There has been very little data reported regarding fungal diseases in plants.
Fungi spp.
Infected specie of plant
Disease
Reference
Cytospora rhizophorae
Rhizophora spp.
Prop roots
(Kohlmeyer & Kohlmeyer, 1979)
Phomopsis mangrovei
Rhizophora apiculata
Prop root
(Hyde, 1996)
Phytopthora spp.
Avicennia marina
Dieback
(Weste et al., 1982; Pegg et al., 1980)
Table 1: Fungal diseases in plants
Disease in algae
Some species of Labyrinthulomycetes cause infections in marine algae, are thought to be important pathogens (Mueglstein et al., 1988) (Table 2). The members of oomycetes and chytrids were also observed to affect marine algae (Table 2).
Fungi spp.
Infected specie of algae
Disease
Reference
Labyrinthula sp.
(Rhizoclonium sp., Zostera marina, Cladophora sp.) and cyanobacteria ( e.g. Lyngbya spp.)
Wasting disease
(Raghukumar, 1986; Raghukumar, 1987a, b; Muehlstein et al.,1988; Rheinheimer, 1992)
Chytridium polysiphonae
Sphacelaria sp.
(Raghukumar, 1986; Amon, 1984)
Pontisma lagenidiodes (oomycete)
Chaetomorphmedia
browing disease
(Raghukumar, 1987a)
Sirolpidium bryopsidis
Cladophora sp.
(Raghukumar, 1986)
Lagenisma coscinodici
Marine diatoms
(Schnepf and Diechgraber, 1978)
Table 2: Fungal diseases in algae
Disease in animals
Not only natural but cultured population of marine animals has been affected by the fungal diseases (Alderman and Polglase, 1986). Because of their high occurrences (Johnson, 1983; Polglase et al., 1986; Noga, 1990), both populations are limited by the disease (Alderman and Polglase, 1986). Many species of fungi were reported but group of oomycetes are considered most important pathogens (e.g. Aphanomyces, Haliphthoros, Lagenidium, Saprolegnia, Sirolpidium) (Rand, 1996). Other important fungal pathogens of genus Fusarium are reported to be involved in the shell diseases of marine crustaceans (Lightner, 1988), other fungal infections in hermit crab (Smolowitz et al., 1992) and lobsters (Stewart, 1984).
Cases reported in Pakistan
Species of Aspergillus, Fusarium, Alternaria, Trichoderma, Helminthosporium were also reported in fishes of river Ravi, Punjab, Pakistan (Zafar et al., 2019).
Cases reported in Iraq
Mhaisen et al., (2019) also reported Ichthyophonous hoferi in fishes of Basrah province, Iraq. Some fungal diseases are elaborated below (Leaño, 2001):
Major fungal disease of fishes
Ichthyophoniasis (Ichthyosporidiosis)
It is caused by Ichthyophonus sp. (Ichthyosporidium sp.). Many groups of fish like trouts, groupers, herrings, cods and flounders are affected by the infection.
Apparent signs
The apparent signs differ from specie to specie, while some infected fishes don’t have any visual signs. Irregular swimming pattern and inflammation of abdomen are often observed among infected fishes. Internal body organs (liver, kidney and spleen) swell with up to 2mm diameter of whitish nodules. These nodules have not been reported in muscle tissues of infected fishes.
Outcomes of disease
Affected fishes become anaemic and slender due to loss of appetite.
Diagnosis
Microscopic examination of nodules formation will reveal the different stages of the pathogen.
Prevention and control
No treatment is available but avoiding contaminated food can prevent the infection.
Major fungal diseases of crustaceans
Aflatoxicosis (Red disease)
It is caused due to the production of toxin (aflatoxin) by Aspergillus flavus and other Aspergillus spp. It affects the shrimps spp. Aspergillus spp. are the common contaminants of inappropriate stored or expired feeds.
Apparent signs
Shrimp’s body and appendages become yellowish and gradually discharge reddish discoloration. These signs were observed among cultured juvenile pond-shrimps. The organism become sluggish and swims slowly near the pond dikes.
Outcomes of disease
Growth will be stopped.
Diagnosis
Infected shrimps will die in 30 seconds after the collection. There will be chemical tests to analyse suspected food of shrimps for aflatoxin.
Prevention and control
Prevent feed to be mouldy by standard storing procedure.
Conclusion
Because of the late realization of the importance of marine ecology, we discovered many great opportunities to make human life better. However, there is a long way to uncover many astonishing aspects of the ocean. The fungal diseases are not yet entirely divulged to the world due to the continued research. This progressive research will help us to fathom out the world of marine microbiology.
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Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project.
I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality.
We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions,
I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients."
I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dr Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing.
¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dr Maria Regina Penchyna Nieto
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions,
The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed.
The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dr Marcelo Flavio Gomes Jardim Filho
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing!
"I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Zsuzsanna Bene
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
Dr Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin.
The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent,
the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
Lin-Show Chin
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional.
The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work.
The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient.
The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research.
I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
Sonila Qirko
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional.
I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
Luiz Sellmann
I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.
Zhao Jia
Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery,
"The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."
Thomas Urban
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient.
The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
Cristina Berriozabal
To Dear Erin Aust,
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable.
Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free.
I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.
Dr Tewodros Kassahun Tarekegn
"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".
Dr Shweta Tiwari
I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication.
This journal certainly publishes quality research articles.
I would recommend the journal for any future publications.
Dr Farooq Wandroo
Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.
Dr Anyuta Ivanova
We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.
Dr David Vinyes
My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.
Gertraud Teuchert-Noodt
To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice!
I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence
in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt,
during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication.
Thank
Prof. Elvira Farina
Dr Elvira Farina
Dear Jessica, and the super professional team of the ‘Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions’
I am sincerely grateful to the coordinated work of the journal team for the no problem with the submission of my manuscript: “Cardiometabolic Disorders in A Pregnant Woman with Severe Preeclampsia on the Background of Morbid Obesity (Case Report).”
The review process by 5 experts was fast, and the comments were professional, which made it more specific and academic, and the process of publication and presentation of the article was excellent.
I recommend that my colleagues publish articles in this journal, and I am interested in further scientific cooperation.
Sincerely and best wishes,
Dr. Oleg Golyanovskiy.
Dr Oleg Golyanovski
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
