AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/JHV-2021/002
*Corresponding Author: Hüsnü Değirmenci, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University, Erzincan/Turkey.
Citation: Hüsnü Değirmenci (2021) Current Approach to the No Reflow Phenomenon J, Heart and Vasculature 1(1); DOI: 10.31579/JHV-2021/002
Copyright: © Değirmenci, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 08 February 2021 | Accepted: 19 February 2021 | Published: 27 February 2021
Keywords: no reflow, microvascular obstruction, timi 1-2 flow, timi frame count, myocardial blush grade, treatment
Coronary no reflow phenomenon is a decrease in myocardial tissue perfusion despite the patency of the epicardial coronary arteries. Microvascular obstruction due to various reasons is the main pathological mechanism. In coronary no reflow phenomenon, TIMI 1-2 flow and high TIMI frame count are observed. Since microvascular obstruction continues intermittently despite TIMI 3 flow, myocardial blush grade provides a better evaluation in the evaluation of no reflow phenomenon. In patients with TIMI 3 flow, myocardial blush being below grade 2 is considered as a no reflow phenomenon. Thrombus aspiration, antiplatelet agents, adenosine, sodium nitroprusside, epinephrine constitute the main treatment.
Coronary no reflow phenomenon is defined as myocardial tissue hypoperfusion that develops despite the patency of epicardial coronary arteries [1]. While no reflow phenomenon is observed in 0.6-5% of cases with elective percutaneous coronary intervention, it is seen in 60% of cases with primary percutaneous coronary intervention [1, 2]. Especially in patients diagnosed with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction, no reflow phenomenon is common in percutaneous coronary interventions, saphenous vein graft attempts and atheroctomy [2]. This phenomenon especially causes complications of early post myocardial infarction, left ventricular remodeling, recurrent hospitalizations and mortality [2]. Therefore, we presented the current approach to the coronary no reflow phenomenon.
Epicardial stenosis, epicardial spasm, local thrombus, and dissection should be ruled out for diagnosis [3]. No reflow phenomenon is defined as the decrease in myocardial flow and myocardial perfusion despite reperfusion with percutaneous coronary intervention during acute myocardial infarction. TIMI flow grade system, TIMI frame count and myocardial blush grade are used to evaluate coronary blood flow. In coronary no reflow phenomenon, TIMI 1-2 flow and high TIMI frame count are observed. Since microvascular obstruction continues intermittently despite TIMI 3 flow, myocardial blush grade provides a better evaluation in the evaluation of no reflow phenomenon [4]. In patients with TIMI 3 flow, myocardial blush being below grade 2 is considered as a no reflow phenomenon [4-6]. No reflow phenomenon is often caused by microvascular obstruction due to various reasons. This phenomenon is evaluated in two classes: intervention-related or reperfusion [7]. Echocardiography, coronary angiography, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography and biomarkers can be used for diagnosis. Noninvasive echocardiographic evaluation of myocardial perfusion by myocardial contrast echocardiography plays an important role in determining microvascular no reflow phenomenon. Reduced tissue contrast enhancement on MRI with contrast enhancement suggests no reflow phenomenon. Multidetector computed tomography suggests noreflow phenomenon with decreased myocardial perfusion. Even after successful percutaneous coronary intervention, an increase in troponin levels can be seen in 70% of patients. This rise is suggestive of a no reflow phenomenon [7].
Over 65, smoking, previous myocardial infarction, high killip class, high serum creatine levels, high C reactive protein level, low vitamin D level, prolonged intervention time, low ejection fraction, low TIMI flow grade, initial major perfusion defect, acute Hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and low echoic content of the lesion are risk factors for the no reflow phenomenon [7,8]. The No-reflow phenomenon and comparison to the normal-flow population postprimary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation myocardial infarction: case – control (NORM PPCI) study evaluated predictors and incidence of the no-reflow phenomenon. In this study, no reflow phenomenon was observed in 24 (13.9%) of 173 patients with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction. No reflow phenomenon has been found to be associated with complex lesion, systolic hypertension and low weight [9].
Endothelial dysfunction, reperfusion injury, ischemia-related injury, distal thromboembolism due to percutaneous coronary intervention, individual sensitivity, myocardial cell swelling and microvascular arterial spasm play an important role in etiopathogenesis. Increase in neutrophil platelet aggregates, increase in free oxygen radicals, increase in endothelin 1 level and thromboxan A 1 level, increase in mean platelet volume and reactivity in patients with risk factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of no reflow phenomenon [7].
No reflow development risk score is determined according to age, thrombus burden and microcirculatory resistance index level (ATI Score). According to these parameters, age 50 and over is 1 point. If thrombus load is 4, 1 point; If 5, 3 points are given. If the microcirculatory resistance index is between 40-100, 1 point; If 100 and above, 2 points are awarded. According to this evaluation, the maximum score is 6. If the ATI score is 4 and above, 95.1% microcirculatory resistance index is 40U and above. Microvascular resistance index is a parameter that has been used for a long time, showing coronary microvascular functions. Its normal value is 25 and below. Generally, this index is not affected by epicardial vascular stenosis. As a standardized coronary pressure wire is used, it is possible to measure fractional flow reserve simultaneously. Therefore, macrovascular and microvascular dysfunction can be distinguished. Microvascular resistance can simply be formulated as distal microvascular pressure x transit time of blood (10-13). ATI score over 4 was found to be associated with large infarct volume and left ventricular remodeling [14, 15].
The most important invasive intervention that reduces the no reflow phenomenon is thrombus aspiration. The REMEDIA study is the first study showing that manual thrombectomy reduces the no reflow phenomenon, especially in patients with high thrombus burden [16]. In addition, in the TAPAS study, it was shown that improvement in myocardial perfusion was achieved with manual thrombus aspiration. In this study, it was shown that mortality decreased in 1-year follow-up [17].
Clopidogrel reduces the no reflow phenomenon by inhibiting platelet aggregation by P2Y12 inhibition. Ticagrelor reduces the uptake of adenosine into the cell by inhibition of adenosine transporter ENT-1. Thus, extracellular adenosine increases. The increase in adenosine causes coronary vasodilation. Ticagrelor also inhibits platelet aggregation. Kangrelor provides reversible P2Y12 inhibition. Thus, it inhibits platelet aggregation [18-22].
Glycoprotein 2b / 3a inhibitors such as abciximab and tirofiban reduce the no reflow phenomenon by reducing distal embolization and thrombus burden. Abciximab can be administered as a 12-hour infusion followed by a 0.25 mg / kg IV bolus [23, 24].
In the Randomized Evaluation Of Intracoronary Nitroprusside vs Adenosine After Thrombus-aspiration During Primary Percutaneous Coronary Intervention for the Prevention of No Reflow in Acute Myocardial Infarction (THE REOPEN-AMI STUDY) study (25) adenosine (80 microgram bolus followed by 2 mg; 33 cc saline followed by slow bolus in 2 minutes) and nitroprusside (60 microgram fast bolus followed by 100 microgram; 33 cc 5% dextrose 2 min slow bolus) was compared. All of these patients were given abciximab before the procedure and thrombus aspiration was performed during the procedure. In this study, a significant improvement in ST segment resolution was observed with the addition of adenosine to thrombus aspiration. Improvement in ST segment resolution is an indication that microvascular obstruction has improved. In the adenosine no reflow phenomenon, intravenous or intracoronary can be applied. Adenosine can be administered at a bolus dose of 100-200 micrograms (intracoronary) or as an intravenous infusion of 50-70 micrograms / kg / min for 3 hours. Or, a 120 microgram bolus followed by a slow infusion with 2 mg over 2 minutes [4].
In the AMISTAD and AMISTAD 2 studies, adenosine has been shown to reduce infarct volume. However, it did not improve clinical outcomes in patients with delayed reperfusion [26-28].
In some studies, it has been shown that sodium nitroprusside provides a significant hyperemic effect with its vasodilator effect and reduces the no reflow phenomenon [4]. Nitroprusside 60-100 micrograms intracoronary bolus is administered.
Calcium channel blockers of nondihydropride have also been shown to reduce the no-reflow phenomenon and reduce 6-month adverse cardiovascular events. Verapamil can be administered as 0.1-0.5 mg intracoronary followed by oral tablets [4]. Diltiazem can be administered as 0.4 mg intracoronary.
Nicorandil provides coronary vasodilation by increasing nicotinamide nitrate levels and opening mitochondrial potassium channels. Nicorandil can be administered as an intravenous 4mg bolus and 6mg / hour infusion following 0.5 mg intracoronary administration. It is followed by an oral tablet [29, 30].
In a small retrospective study of the refractory no reflow phenomenon, at least 100 micrograms of epinephrine (in the range of 100-400 micrograms) has been shown to be beneficial. Adenosine or nitroprusside can also be used in the resistant no reflow phenomenon [31].
In the no reflow phenomenon, intravenous atrial natriuretic peptide, intravenous cyclosporine or intracoronary dipyridamole may also be used [4].
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.
Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.
We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.
The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.
Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.
Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.
The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
