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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2690-1919/333
1 Department of Public Health, Peoples Dental College and Hospital, Kathmandu
2 Department of Public Health, CiST College, Kathmandu
3 Department of Public Health, Yeti Health science Academy, Kathmandu
4 Department of Oncology, Kanti Children’s Hospital, Kathmandu
5 Department of Community Medicine, School of Public Health, Chitwan Medical College, Chitwan, Nepal
6 Department of Dentistry, Peoples Dental College and Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.
*Corresponding Author: Maheshor Kaphle; Associate Professor of Public Health, Peoples Dental college and Hospital, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu.
Citation: Maheshor Kaphle, Achel Tamang , Rajesh Karki , Nirmala Regmi , Kishor Adhikari (2023), Assessment of Oral Hygiene Practice and Associated Factors among Middle-aged People in a Rural Municipality, Nepal, J Clinical Research and Reports, 14(1); DOI:10.31579/2690-1919/333
Copyright: © 2023, Maheshor Kaphle. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 11 August 2023 | Accepted: 17 August 2023 | Published: 22 August 2023
Keywords: adults; dental caries; nepal; oral hygiene; rural population
Background: Good oral hygiene practice helps to prevent oral cavity diseases and dental problems.
Objectives: This study is aimed to assess oral hygiene practices and their associated factors among middle-aged people in a rural municipality of central Nepal.
Methods: This study collected data from 291 middle-aged adults in rural Nepal using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data was entered into Epi-data 3.1 and analyzed using SPSS 22. An oral hygiene score was calculated based on good oral hygiene practices, and chi-square tests and logistic regression models were used to measure associations between variables. Adjusted odds ratios were calculated to measure net effects, with a p-value of 0.05 considered significant.
Result: The study found that the majority of respondents (80%) brushed their teeth once a day, with over half (56.7%) having poor oral hygiene practices. The majority (60%) changed their toothbrush every three months, and most (98%) used toothpaste but did not know about fluoride's benefits. A significant association was found between age, sex, education, dental caries, toothache, and regular dental visits with oral hygiene practices. Females had three times higher odds of good oral hygiene practices than males, literate individuals had higher odds of good oral hygiene,
Conclusions: The study found that most respondents brushed their teeth once a day, with over half having poor oral hygiene practices. Gender, education, and toothache were associated with good oral hygiene practices. The study suggests the need for oral health services and hygiene awareness programs in rural areas.
The experience of pain, and problems with eating, chewing, smiling, and communication due to lost discolored, or damaged teeth have a major impact on people’s daily lives and well-being [1]. Oral diseases are still public health problems with high prevalence and incidence all around the world [2]. Poor oral hygiene practice leads to periodontal disease which is one of the most frequent dental problems [3]. Oral health problems are mostly preventable through good oral hygiene habits and regular preventive dental visits [4]. Cleanliness of teeth, gum, tongue, and all part of the oral cavity is considered oral hygiene[5]. Proper oral hygiene is important for preventing oral and dental disease including gingivitis periodontal diseases and dental caries[6, 7]. Good oral hygiene practices promote a good personality, prevent oral cavity diseases, and promote quality of life[8]. So, good oral hygiene is the baseline foundation for controlling more than 80% of oral diseases[6]. Oral health problems due to poor oral hygiene practices are considered many other co-morbidities such as offensive breath, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, kidney diseases, and oral cancers [9-11]. Oro-pharyngeal cancers are the most serious oral health problems which cause more death than cervical cancer[12].
The most important oral health global burden of disease in oral health is due to periodontal diseases and dental caries among industrialized developed countries as well as other developing countries [1]. Oral diseases affect nearly 3.5 billion people. Untreated dental caries in permanent teeth is the most common health condition according to the Global Burden of Disease 2019[13]. Globally, the greatest burden of oral diseases lies on disadvantaged and poor populations [14]. Poor oral hygiene can have an adverse effect on the overall health and quality of life of a person[15]. Nearly every adult has at least one dental caries, almost 30% of people in the world aged between 65 to 80 do not have any natural teeth left and more than 50% of the school children have at least one dental caries [16]. Most people practice cleaning their teeth at least once a day in Nepal and a substantial number of the population use fluoridated toothpaste [17]. According to Nepal national pathfinder survey, the prevalence of dental caries among adults aged 35-49 years was 57.5% and those aged >50 years were 69.6%[18]. People in rural areas have comparatively poor oral hygiene practices[19] and have high oral care needs[20]. According to the study in Nepal, more than fifty percent of the participant have below-average practice in oral hygiene (55.8%) and only 44.2% of the participant have above-average practice in oral hygiene [21]. Another study conducted in the Kaski district of Nepal showed that education is an important factor associated with oral health status[22]. Individuals with higher education had significantly higher odds of getting good oral hygiene practices compared to those with lower education levels[23].
This study was conducted in a rural municipality, where the majority of the population had little to no knowledge about good oral hygiene practices, and very few practiced dental flossing on a daily basis. People tended to visit a dentist only when they experienced severe pain or toothache. Moreover, the majority of the people in this study area belonged to marginalized castes in Nepal. The study revealed that poor and marginalized people were more likely to experience oral health problems in Nepal [18]. They consume alcohol and are addicted to smoking for enjoyment, to get drunk, to escape problems, or for ritualistic reasons [24]. Additionally, most studies have focused on school children in urban areas, with very few community-based studies conducted in rural areas and among marginalized ethnic groups. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess oral hygiene practices and their associated factors among middle-aged people in a rural municipality in the Dhading district of Nepal.
2.1. Study area and period: The study was conducted in a community setting in the central part of the country, Netrawati Dabjong rural municipality, Bagmati province, Dhading district from May to October 2022. This rural municipality was 85 km northwest of the capital city. The majority of the community are Tamang tribal ethnic group, thus this rural municipality was chosen for study. Tamang community is marginalized, has low socioeconomic poor health status, and low literacy group, so this group was taken for study[25, 26]. Groups are coded as the Janjati group in this study. Two wards among five were selected randomly by lottery method.
2.2. Study design, participants, and variables: Community-based quantitative cross-sectional study design was conducted among middle-aged adults (40-60 years). Patients taking medication for severe mental illness and who refused to participate in the study were excluded. One individual from each household was included. We took sociodemographic characteristics such as age, sex, occupation, income, employment status, education, ethnicity, and dental condition such as dental caries, toothache, gum bleeding, and previous dental visit as independent variables and oral hygiene practice as dependent variables. Behavioral patterns and eating practices such as frequency of brushing, use of toothpaste, fluoride in toothpaste, the technique of brushing, time of changing brush, and doing mouth rinse were also used as dependent variables.
2.3. Sample size and sampling procedure:
Sample size was calculated by using single population proportion formula. A previous study found that 41.9% of people used toothbrushes and fluoridated toothpaste and not using any tobacco products [27]. By considering this as good oral hygiene practice, the sample size was 375. The household population of selected wards was found to be 1195. By applying the formula for finite population (n =(n∘)/(1+n∘/N)) the sample size was calculated. Where n= sample size, no=375, and N=1195. By calculation, the final sample size was 286 which was further rounded to 291 by taking some surplus data. All people aged between 40 to 60 years were included and those participants who refuse to participate in this study were excluded.
Two wards were randomly selected from a total of five wards. All the eligible participants from the selected household were identified from the selected wards and a sampling frame was constructed. If there were more than one eligible member, only one most senior (age-wise) individual was taken as a sample from each selected household. We used a systematic random sampling technique for the selection of households. The center place was identified from each selected ward to start the data collection. The sampling interval was calculated by total household number i.e., 1195 divided by sample size 291 and obtained 4, so data was collected every 4th household until the sample size was reached. First household and direction were identified by pencil spin method.
2.4. Data collection tools and procedure:
Semi-structured questionnaire was formulated and finalized by the study team in consultation with another public health expert. The data collection tool consisted following parts: socio-demographic characteristic was in the first part; behavioral practice was in the second and eating practice was in the third part. The dependent variable (oral hygienic practice) was assessed by behavioral and eating practices. Oral hygiene practice-related questions such as ‘Do you brush your teeth?’ ‘How often do you clean your teeth?’ (Frequency of brushing), ‘Do you use toothpaste/brush?’, ‘Do you use fluoridated toothpaste?’, use a toothpick, ‘Explain the technique of brushing’(right/wrong), ‘time duration of changing brush’, ‘use of dental floss’, and ‘mouth rinse’ etc., and eating practice related questions were: ‘Do you consume alcohol’, ‘smoking’, ‘tobacco chewing, ‘Do you use of biscuit’, ‘candy’, ‘sugar’, ‘sweets’, ‘nut’. One score was provided for good oral hygiene practice. Data collectors were properly trained and questions were clearly explained during data collection to maintain data integrity, improve data quality, enhance reliability and validity, promote participant understanding, and ensure adherence to ethical standards. The face-to-face interview was conducted with one respondent from each household. Senior (age-wise) member of the household was interviewed if there were more than one member aged 40-60 years within the family. One health professional was recruited for data collection and a BDS doctor was supervised.
2.5. Measurement of oral hygiene practice
i. Poor oral hygienic practice: There were 18 items to assess hygiene practices. Questions from behavioral and eating practice were summed by providing a ‘one’ score for hygienic and a ‘zero’ for unhygienic practices for calculation of poor and good hygienic practices. The total score was obtained from 18 practice questions. Cut-off scores below average/mean (mean=9.91) were categorized as poor oral hygiene practice [28].
ii. Good oral hygienic practice: Cut-off scores equal and more than the mean were categorized as good oral hygiene practice[28].
2.6. Data quality control: The questionnaire was prepared after intensive discussions among the study team and was finalized after pretesting with 10% of the population. Initially, the questionnaire was prepared in English and then back-translated to Nepali by collaborating closely with a local language expert, an English language expert, and a dental healthcare professional. This collaboration ensured technical consistency and reliability. One researcher was responsible for data collection to maintain the validity of the questionnaire. The collected data were promptly checked and rechecked by a dental doctor to ensure data quality.
2.7. Data processing and analysis: Epi-Data version 3.1 was used to enter the data after the necessary validation and generation of check files. Data were then transferred, cleaned, and analyzed in SPSS 22. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, a measure of central tendency, etc. were calculated according to the characteristics of variables. The information was presented in a summary and descriptive table for further interpretation. We used bivariate analysis to measure the association between independent and dependent variables by chi-square test. We calculated the odds ratio and 95% confidence interval to find out the significant association between the study and outcome variables. The variables which were significantly associated with dependent variables with p<0>
2.8. Ethical consideration:
A verbal explanation of objectives was given to the rural municipality office for permission for data collection. The purpose and objectives of the study were explained to all the respondents. Written consent was taken from each respondent. Confidentiality of information from respondents was highly maintained. Ethical approval was taken from IRC-CiST (Ref. no: 135/078/079)
3.1. Sociodemographic characteristics: Altogether 291 respondents were included in this study. Among all respondents, 52% were male and 40.9% were illiterate and 37 % completed primary education with a mean age of 50.55(±4.89). Only 14.4% of respondents were employed. More than 76% were Janjati caste followed by the upper caste group. A total of 70.8% of respondents followed the Buddhism religion followed by the Hindu religion (28.5%). Nearly half of the respondents were from nuclear (Table 1).
3.2 Respondents practice oral hygiene: The majority of respondents, i.e., 80% practiced brushing their teeth once a day. Among them, 60% of respondents changed their toothbrush every three months. Surprisingly, 1.4% of participants responded that they never brush their teeth. The majority of respondents, i.e., 98% didn’t know about fluoride and its benefits. Most of the respondents (98.6%) used toothpaste while brushing their teeth. The majority i.e., 79.8% of respondents reported that they have fluoride in their toothpaste. A high proportion of respondents (97.6%) brushed their teeth in the horizontal and vertical directions. Almost all (98.6%) of the population rinses their mouth after their meal. The majority of (62.2%) respondents have visited a dentist only when they have a toothache and surprisingly, 37.5% of respondents never visited a dentist (Table 2). Moreover, a person's dietary habits can have an impact on oral hygiene as well. The research findings showed that more than two-thirds of the respondents used tobacco products, while over half (54%) reported consuming biscuits. Additionally, nearly one-third (32%) of the participants included alcohol and sweet candy in their daily food intake (Table 3).
3.3 The overall level of oral hygiene practices: Among all 291 respondents, 56.7% have poor, while 43.3% have good oral hygiene practices (Figure 1
Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents among middle aged people in rural Nepal 2022(n=291)
Table 2:Respondents practice on oral hygiene
Table 3:Respondents behavioral practice on food habit related oral hygiene
Figure 1:Level of oral hygiene of respondents among middle age people in rural Nepal 2022 (n=291)
3.4 Affecting factors with oral hygienic practice among middle age people:
Association between socio-demographic variables such as age, sex, education, monthly income, and employment status were identified to be significantly associated to oral hygienic practice (Table 4)
| Variables | Attributes | Practice | ||
| Poor n (%) | Good n (%) | p-value | ||
| Age | 40-50 | 100(68.5) | 46(31.5) | <0> |
| 50-60 | 65(44.8) | 80(55.2) | ||
| Gender | Male | 76(49.7) | 77(50.3) | 0.011* |
| Female | 89(64.5) | 49(35.5) | ||
| Education | Illiterate | 109(63.4) | 63(36.6) | <0> |
| Literate | 56(47.1) | 63(52.9) | ||
| Monthly income | Up to 10,000 | 131(53.7) | 113(46.3) | 0.018* |
| More than 10000 | 34 (72.3) | 13 (27.7) | ||
| Ethnicity | Under Privilege | 128(57.7) | 94(42.3) | .555 |
| Privileged | 37(53.6) | 32(46.4) | ||
| Employment status | Employed | 30(71.4) | 12 (28.6) | 0.037* |
| Unemployed | 135 (54.2) | 114 (45.8) | ||
Table 4: Association between socio-demographic variables and oral hygiene
'3.5. Associated factors with oral hygienic practice among middle age people:
In the multivariate analysis, a variance inflation test (VIF) was performed among the independent variables, and the highest reported VIF was 2.87, suggesting no issues of multicollinearity. Regarding socio-demographic variables, the results indicate no significant difference between oral hygiene practices and age group, income, and employment groups. Similarly, the results reveal that females have three times higher odds of
having good oral hygiene practices compared to males (AOR: 3.51, 95% CI: 1.86-6.62), and literate individuals have higher odds of having good oral hygiene practices compared to illiterate individuals (AOR=2.04, p=0.032). In terms of dental condition and oral hygiene practices, the results demonstrate that individuals with toothache have higher odds of having poor oral hygiene practices compared to those without toothache (AOR=3.93, p=0.002) (see Table 5).
Table 5: Logistic regression analysis of factors associated with oral hygiene practice
In our study, the majority of respondents i.e., 80% practiced brushing their teeth once a day. According to the study conducted in India, the majority of respondents brushed their teeth once a day[20, 29]. It shows that people have normalized brushing their teeth once a day in both study areas.
In this study, the majority of respondents (60%) changed their toothbrush every three months and the majority of respondents i.e., 98% didn’t know about fluoride and its benefits. According to the study in Mangalore South India, only 22.4% of the participants knew that fluoride strengthens the teeth[30]. According to a study among students in Odisha (India), nearly 34.53% of the students changed their toothbrushes once in 2 months and nearly 45.6% of the students always used fluoridated toothpaste[29]. Our finding revealed that the majority of the population brushed their teeth in the horizontal and vertical directions was supported by the literature found[31].
As per the study findings, about 62.2% of respondents have visited a dentist only when they have dental pain and 37.5% never visited a dentist which is similar to the findings of the study conducted in Saudi Arabia [32] and Dharan, Nepal[33]. This shows that people visit the dentist mostly when they have oral health problems which could be due to the very expensive cost of treatment. This study revealed that more than half (56.7%) were practicing poor oral hygienic practice. The study conducted in Ethiopia found that more than 27% had poor knowledge[28]. This huge difference is due to different study settings. But another study from Saudi Arabia found nearly the same result[34]. Half of the respondents i.e., 65.6% had oral health-related problems. Among them 61.5%had dental caries. According to the study done among German refugees, 79% of the participants had dental caries [35].
As per our results, oral hygiene practice was found to be statistically significant to the age of the respondents, which is in agreement with the literature found[36-38]. Association between socio-demographic variables such as sex and education were identified to be significantly associated with oral hygienic practice in this study. The study conducted among USA ethnic group [39], STEPS survey Nepal[17], and a study in Burkino Faso[40] supports our result that more knowledgeable and educated people are performing better hygiene practices than uneducated people. Socio-economic status and oral hygiene index are statistically significant[41]. According to the study conducted UAE in being employed is significant with oral hygiene practice [42] which was consistent with our study.
Many study found that dental caries and periodontal diseases are significantly associated with oral hygiene-related behavior[43]. Dental problems and dental visits were significantly associated[44]. People who were facing problems related to oral health were practicing better oral hygiene behavior.
This study found that the odds of using good oral hygiene practices are increasing with age (AOR: 2.67, 95% CI: 1.65-4.31) in bivariate analysis which is supported by the study done in American middle-aged (35-44 years). Navajo Native Americans were showing better oral hygiene scale scores compared with the older age group in multivariate analysis[45]. Oral hygiene practice gets better as age increases (AOR=0.722 (0.277-1.880) [28].
In this study, people with good income are more likely to adopt better oral hygiene practices (AOR: 2.25(1.13-4.48) which is supported by the study in India which revealed, more affluent people have better oral health status[46].
The limitation of this study is the possibility of information bias because we have only collected self-recorded dental conditions. We did not perform clinical examinations to confirm the reported dental conditions. Generally, there are nine wards are there in a rural municipality of Nepal. So due to the limited sample size and area, the findings of this study may not be generalizable to the large population of urban areas. However, this study has conducted this study in a rural area of Nepal and among the adult population, which is the strength of this study. This study finding helps rural municipalities to emphasize following good oral hygiene practices to reduce dental diseases.
In this study, middle-aged adults, most of the respondents brushed their teeth once a day, and all the people who brushed their teeth used toothpaste. The majority of respondents had no knowledge about fluoride and its benefits. More than half of the respondents had poor oral hygiene practices. Among oral health-related problems, dental caries was the most prevalent problem. Sex, education, and suffering from toothache were factors associated with oral hygiene practice. Oral health services, awareness programs, and campaigns need a special focus on low-education clusters to be organized by the rural municipality to improve oral hygiene practice.
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Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
