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Research | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/ijcp.2021/001
*Corresponding Author: Adrian Furnham, Department of Leadership and Organizational Behaviour, Norwegian Business School (BI), Olso, Norway.
Citation: Adrian Furnham (2021). Dark Side subscales and Work Success. International Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1(1). DOI: 10.31579/ijcp.2021/001
Copyright: © 2021 Adrian Furnham. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 19 August 2021 | Accepted: 15 September 2021 | Published: 22 September 2021
Keywords: dark side; HDS; professions; disorders; facets; work success; psychometricians; dark triad; narcissism; Machiavellianism; psychopathy
Various studies have revealed the paradoxical finding that some dark-side traits are positively associated with management and leadership success. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the newly developed subscales of dark-side trait traits as measured by the Hogan Development Survey (HDS) and criteria-keyed personality test measures of work success. In all, 262 British employees participated in the study. In the study we examined the facets of the three super-factors: Moving away from, Against and Towards other, on at a time onto the six criterion variables: service orientation, stress tolerance, reliability, clerical potential, sales potential and managerial potential. Mercurial and moody behaviours were negative predictors, whereas fantasied talent and public confidence were positive predictors of six measures of work success. The results suggest that a finer-grain analysis of dark-side traits which is made possible by the updated Hogan Development Survey offers an opportunity to understand the paradox mentioned above. Implications and limitations are acknowledged.
Dark subscales and work success
There is now an extensive literature on dark-side traits in the workplace [4,11,12,18-22,26,30,33,39,44]. Various studies show that, perhaps paradoxically, some dark traits like Narcissistic Personality Disorder have a positive effect on leadership emergence if not effectiveness [35]. Indeed, reviews using data from three different countries have shown that Chief Executive Officers often have elevated scores on numerous dark-side measures [19,37,43]. Furnham, Richards and Paulhus (2013) also showed that the “dark triad” (Narcissism, Machiavellianism and Psychopathy) in sub-clinical levels appear in many successful leaders.
This a small, but growing literature, on the paradoxical finding from many studies that sometimes show dark-side traits are associated with work success as well as failure [8,14,15,30]. A part explanation for these findings is the way sub-clinical personality disorder tests, like the HDS, are valenced and worded. Others think that some of these dark traits (e.g. Narcissism) are initially very useful at getting a job (i.e. leadership emergence) but that they are associated with long term management derailment and failure. Based on their data, Kaiser et al. (2015) proposed that both lower and higher HDS scores represent increasing risk for derailing behaviours, whereas moderate scores represent low risk and may even be associated with desirable behaviours. There are also distinctions within disorders such as the different between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism which may be differentially related to work-related behaviours. A more detailed examination of the facets of the dark-side traits may indeed offer an insight into this paradox.
In this study, we used the updated Hogan Development Survey (HDS) which now has three facets for each disorder. The HDS assesses dysfunctional interpersonal themes which reflect distorted beliefs about others. These emerge when people encounter stress or stop considering how their actions affect others (Hogan & Hogan, 2001; 2009). Over time, these dispositions may become associated with a person’s reputation and can impede job performance and career success. The HDS assesses self-defeating expressions of normal personality. The HDS has increasingly attracted the attention particularly by Industrial/Organisational psychology researchers interested in management derailment [16,18].
Higher order factors | HDS | Subscales | Definitions |
Moving Away | Excitable | Volatile | Moody, often angered or annoyed easily upset and hard to soothe. |
Easily Disappointed | Initial passion for people and projects, who inevitably disappoint, and passion then turns to rejection. | ||
No Direction | Lacking few well defined beliefs or interests, but with regrets about past behaviour. | ||
Sceptical | Cynical | Prone to doubt others’ intentions and assume they have bad ulterior motives. | |
Mistrusting | Generalized mistrust of people and institutions; being alert for signs of perceived mistreatment. | ||
Grudges | Holding grudges and being unwilling to forgive real or perceived wrongs. | ||
Cautious | Avoidant | Avoiding new people and situations to avoid imagined potential embarrassment. | |
Fearful | Afraid of being criticized for making mistakes and being reluctant to act independently or make decisions. | ||
Unassertive | Unwilling to act assertively and therefore prone to being overlooked or ignored. | ||
Reserved | Introverted | Valuing one’s private time and preferring to work alone. | |
Unsocial | Keeping others at a distance, limiting close relationships, and being generally detached. | ||
Tough | Indifferent to the feelings and problems of others, focused on tasks rather than people. | ||
Leisurely | Passive Aggressive | Overtly pleasant and compliant but privately resentful and subversive regarding requests for improved performance. | |
Unappreciated | Believing that one’s talents and contributions are ignored; perceiving inequities in assigned workloads. | ||
Irritated | Privately but easily irritated by interruptions, requests, or work related suggestions. | ||
Moving Against | Bold | Entitled | Feeling that one has special gifts and accomplishments and, consequently, deserves special treatment. |
Overconfidence | Unusually confident in one’s abilities; belief that one will succeed at anything one chooses to undertake. | ||
Fantasized Talent | Believing that one has unusual talents and gifts and that one has been born for greatness. | ||
Mischievous | Risky | Prone to taking risks and testing limits; deliberately bending or breaking inconvenient rules. | |
Impulsive | Tending to act impulsively without considering the long term consequences of one’s actions. | ||
Manipulative | Machiavellian tendencies-using charm to manipulate others and no remorse about doing so. | ||
Colourful | Public Confidence | Expecting others to find one’s public performances fascinating and not knowing when to be quiet. | |
Distractible | Easily distracted, minimal focus, needing constant stimulation, confusing activity with productivity. | ||
Self-Display | Wanting to be the centre of attention and using dramatic costumes and gestures to attract attention to oneself. | ||
Imaginative | Eccentric | Expressing unusual views that can be either creative or merely strange; tendency to be absorbed in these ideas. | |
Special Sensitivity | Believing that one has special abilities to see things others don’t and understand things others can’t. | ||
Creative Thinking | Believing that one is unusually creative; easily bored and confident in one’s imaginative problem solving ability. | ||
Moving Towards | Diligent | Standards | Having exceptionally high standards of performance for oneself and others. |
Perfectionistic | Perfectionistic about the quality of work products and obsessed with the details of their completion. | ||
Organized | Meticulous and inflexible about schedules, timing, and rules and procedures. | ||
Dutiful | Indecisive | Overly reliant on others for advice and reluctant to make decisions or act independently. | |
Ingratiating | Excessively eager to please one’s superiors, telling them what they want to hear, and never contradicting them. | ||
Conforming | Taking pride in supporting one’s superiors and following their orders regardless of one’s personal opinion. |
Table 1: The new structure of updated version of HDS.
As presented in Table 1, and confirmed in various studies [16], the HDS has three higher order factors that was based on Horney’s model (1950). The three higher order factors (Moving Away, against and Towards Others) have similarities with the Clusters A (i.e., Odd/Eccentric), Cluster B (i.e., Dramatic/Emotional/Erratic) and Cluster C (i.e., Anxious/Fearful) as defined in various DMS manuals including DSM-IV-R (APA, 2000).
The HDS measures dark-side traits at the domain level, yet many trait measures have developed tests which measure at the domain and facet level to aid better interpretation [7]. The first aim of this study is to validate the updated subscale factor structure of the HDS. To our knowledge this is the first study investigating the updated facet-level HDS.
Work Success
There is an extensive literature, recently reviewed by Furnham (2018a), on personality and work success. There are numerous definitions and measures of work success and operationalized by both objective and subjective career criteria. Objective success refers to extrinsic indicators of success, which can be evaluated objectively by others, such as annual income and number of promotions, as well as salient performance criteria (i.e., revenue from sales). Subjective, or intrinsic, measures of career success attempt to capture an individual’s personal judgments about their career achievements and typically include self-report measures such as job or career satisfaction. The two are moderately related. Nearly all researchers note the desirability of an aggregated measure of objective performance at work but note how difficult this is to obtain, as few organisations record this data.
There are however other measures such as that used in this study [11,17] which are criterion-keyed personality measures. This approach goes back over 50 years where personality researchers determine which personality test questions are reliable and valid indicators of performance and success in various jobs or relating to various job outcomes [10,11]. They are clearly not as robust or valid as objective measures.
In this study we used the HPI which has six established occupational scales: service orientation (i.e., being attentive, pleasant and courteous to clients and customers), stress tolerance (i.e., being able to handle stress – low scores are associated with absenteeism and health problems), reliability (i.e., high scores correspond to integrity and low scores to organisational delinquency), clerical potential (i.e., the ability to follow directions, pay attention to details and communicate clearly), sales potential (i.e., energy, social skills, and the ability to solve problems for clients) and managerial potential (i.e., leadership ability, planning and decision making skills). These measures have been used as “dependent variables” in various studies [11,13,16].
This study extends the work of Furnham, Trickey and Hyde (2012). Using the HDS scale scores and the HPI criterion-based measures of occupational success, that study showed that whilst some disorders seemed consistently associated with low success and potential ratings, others seemed either neutral or positively associated. Specifically, Moody, Mercurial, Excitable personalities are a challenge to work with, and consequently had a strong negative association with all six occupational measures. The same result applied to Cautious people who are likely to be distrustful, suspicious, and cynical; and Avoidant types whose inhibition and risk-aversion preferences often prove problematic. However, there is evidence that Bold and Imaginative profiles are associated with success at work.
Based on Furnham et al.’s (2012) findings, we hypothesised firstly, that the subscales corresponding to Moving Away from Others (i.e., Excitable, Sceptical, Cautious, Reserved and Leisurely) will be negative correlates; and secondly that the subscales corresponding to Moving Against ( Bold, Mischievous, Colourful, Imaginative), as well as Towards others (Diligent, Dutiful) will be positive correlates of work success. Third, based on previous research it was predicted that of the six work success criteria the dark-side domains and facet would be clearly related to stress tolerance, reliability and sales potential [11,13].
Participants and Procedure
In total 262 British employees took part in this study of which 102 (38.9%) were females. Their mean age was 42.94 years (SD = 9.45) with the range being between 16 to 71 years. In all 68% were between 30 and 50 years old. The data for this study came from a British consultancy company which runs assessment and development centres for big organisations. The data used in this study was obtained from mainly international organisations who agreed to let the anonymised data be used for this analysis. All participants received detailed, expert feedback on their scores. Ethical approval was sought and received for this study.
Descriptive statistics
In Table 2, descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha values are presented. More recent research supports a “cut-off” point of .60 (Nagpal, Kumar, Kakar & Bhartia, 2010). As presented in Table 2, the range of Cronbach’s alpha is from 0.45 to 0.66. In theory, these values indicate a low reliability. However, Cortina (1993) proposed that if a scale has a few items (2-3) then it is reasonable and acceptable to have a lower “cut-off” point. Moreover, studies have shown that values between .50 and .70 indicate a good fit [1,40].
Table 2 also shows the alpha reliabilities of the original HDS that does not have facet scores. With only one exception (namely for Colourful) the alphas are higher for the original version though the differences for half of them are not great (i.e. less than 0.5). The greatest disparities are for Excitable and Colourful. Those psychometricians who advise the strict 0.70 guideline for acceptable alphas will note that neither version of the HDS fulfills that criterion very well.
Multiple regression analysis
A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were then conducted using as the criterion variables the six occupational scales from HPI (i.e., service orientation, stress tolerance, reliability, clerical potential, sales potential and managerial potential) and as predictor variables the subscales that correspond to each higher order factor. In all regressions, demographics (i.e., age and gender) entered first and then the HDS subscales. This replicated Furnham et al. (2012) and Furnham (2018).
Table 3 shows the results of the two-step regressions using the HDS subscales that correspond to Moving Away factor. The findings showed that in the first step, gender and age accounted from 0.1% to 2% of the variance whereas the dark-traits accounted from 17 to 54%. The subscales explained more variance for Stress Tolerance and less in Reliability. Furthermore, fearful, volatile and no direction were the most influential negative predictors. Unassertive was a positive predictor for both Service Orientation and Reliability whereas unappreciative was a strong predictor only for Service Orientation. In all, Service Orientation and Stress Tolerance were explained the most from the HDS subscales corresponding to the Moving Away factor whereas reliability is explained the least. This confirmed the hypotheses.
Table 4 shows the results of the two-step regression using the HDS subscales that correspond to the Moving Against others factor. In step 2, the variance accounted by the dark traits was from 14% to 51%, with Service Orientation accounting for less where sales accounting for more. Specifically, public confidence was a positive strong predictor for all six scores, followed by fantasised talent.
Table 5 shows the results of the two-step regression using the HDS subscales that correspond to the Moving Towards others factor. In step 2, the variance accounted by the dark side traits was from 1% to 9%, with sales accounting for less whereas Stress Tolerance accounting for more. It seems that the most common predictor of the six work outcome scores is organised and conforming which are positive predictors and indecisive and standards are negative predictors.
The first findings concerned the internal reliability of the dark-side facet model HDS. Around half of the alphas are within acceptable ranges (for three subscales per scale) implying some revisions of the measure may be necessary. There are those however who see the alpha as a potential measure of redundancy and are more forgiving of low alphas as long as the scales show other measures of reliability (test-retest, split half) and more particularly validity (construct, predictive).
Regarding the second aim of the study our hypothesis were partially confirmed. As research has shown [42] traits that are related with Borderline and Neurotic characteristics have negative relation with work-related effects such as performance. As in Furnham et al.’s (2012) study, personality traits that are related with moody, mercurial, Volatile behaviours (Excitable) are difficult to work with and consequently are negative predictors of the six work variables. Our results confirmed, the hypothesis that subscales of the Moving Away from Others factor will be negative predictors of various aspects of work success. The facet unassertive was a positive predictor for service orientation and reliability. Making decisions slowly seems to be beneficial for occupations that are related with integrity and pleasing clients and/or others. It provides a feeling of cooperativeness.
Our second hypothesis was partially confirmed. We found that subscales such as “fantasied talent” and “public confidence” are the strongest positive predictors amongst most of the professions. Interestingly, overconfidence was not a significant predictor. This suggests that people with confidence are perceived capable, whereas the truth seems to be that it is their belief in their fantasied talent that is what makes them seem more successful. In addition, we found that the manipulation and eccentricity are negative predictors in most of the outcome variables, whereas risky and self-display are positive predictors for sales but strong negative predictors for reliability. Moreover, “impulsive” is a positive predictor of Service Orientation and sales but negative for Reliability. These findings are in line with Furnham at al. (2012), and Furnham (2018b) showing that Mischievous was a positive predictor of Service Orientation, sales and negative for Reliability.
Our hypothesis about the super-factor moving towards others was partly confirmed, however two subscales were positive predictors and two negative predictors of the outcome measures. More specifically, the facets standards and indecisive were both negative predictors for Stress Tolerance and Clerical. In addition, indecisive as also a negative predictor for Managerial Success. Organised and standards were positive predictors for Stress Tolerance, Manager Success and Service Orientation, Reliability and Clerical accordingly. Interestingly, standards and organised are both traits associated with Conscientiousness (that is the strongest work-related predictor for success in any profession [32]. However, the former is a negative predictor whereas the latter is a positive predictor. A possible explanation could be that standards may be more associated with micro-managing thus being a negative predictor. This an example of where a facet approach can explain anomalies or paradoxes in the literature.
Another interesting finding was that the variance explained by this factor was very low (less than 10%). A possible explanation for this outcome could be that mainly Stress Tolerance and Clerical variables were explained by these subscales whereas sales was not predicted by any subscale. Clerical is associated with professions related to follow directions which is reasonably explained by subscales that are related to Dutiful.
The updated HDS provides us with some very useful insights as to which subscales are the ones that make each scale a positive or a negative predictor. Primarily, volatile and no direction and fearful are the stronger subscales that contribute to make the Moving Away from others as overall a negative predictor for job success. Cynical, tough, passive-aggressive, introverted and mistrusting are not predictors in any occupation whereas unassertive is a positive predictor for only two professions. This leads us to the conclusion that uncertainty, burst of anger and fear are the strongest traits contributing to someone being unsuccessful at work and leading to potential derailment. Moreover, public confidence is the only positive predictor for all six work outcome measures, followed by fantasised talent. Manipulative and eccentric are negative predictors, followed by entitled. Risky, impulsive and self-display are positive predictors for some occupations but negative for others. Interestingly, overconfidence distractible were not predictors on any of the six work success scales. There is a fine line between overconfidence, fantasised talent and public speech in terminology. The difference of overconfidence and fantasised talent is that in the former the individual believes generally in his/her abilities whereas in the later believes that possess unusual perhaps unique talents, in. Public confidence is more on making people engaged and presenting ideas with enthusiasm and energy.
Finally, the ability to be meticulous and on time as well as supportive, cooperative and putting aside personal feelings while following instructions are the strongest predictors of work success. This is no doubt because it gives the impression of a reliable individual that is able to execute orders even if (s)he believes that those are not correct, showing a high level of maturity. Standards has a negative relation since it seems to be related to micro-managing thus never being able to please with someone’s work and being fixated in trivial things. Also, indecisive is perceived as lack of independent thinking and being proactive. Interestingly, perfectionism and ingratiating do not predict anything. A possible explanation could be that standards is about being fixated with high performance that could lead to micro-managing, perfectionism is about work in general whereas organised is more about time, rules and thoroughness. As, in the case of conforming it shows a level of maturity and responsibility, whereas standards and perfectionism can be perceived as peculiar, perhaps excessive behaviours.
To our best knowledge, this is the first study assessing the updated HDS and looking at the six work success measures of the HPI. Whilst there is some doubt about the internal reliability of some scales and the overall factor structure it was evidence that this new measure with facet scores can aid to the understanding of derailment at work. Indeed, there may be rather different types of derailment related to different counterwork-productive behaviours which are related to the same dark-side trait but different facets of it. Certainly, both candidates and consultants using the HPI which has facets for each trait often report a far better understanding of the feedback after a detailed examination of the facets.
Further studies would benefit from using larger samples as well as having observer and/or behavioural measures of success such as multi-source ratings, speed of promotion or managerial level attained. More importantly it would be desirable to establish typical profiles of facets within each dark side variable to understand how similar domain scores have very different work consequences.
The author would like to thank Henk Broekema and Chris Humphries from Advanced People Strategies Ltd., for supplying the data and doing some preliminary analysis.
Compliance with Ethical Standards (CEHP/514/2017)
None.
The author declares he have no conflict of interest.
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional/national.
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Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.
Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.
Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.
Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”
Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner
My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.
My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.
My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.
