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Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2767-7370/153
1 Veterinary technical manager, Laleh Mahallat Industries Company, Mahallat, Markazi, Iran.
2 Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Sowmeh Sara, Guilan, Iran.
3 Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Sowmeh Sara, Guilan, Iran.
*Corresponding Author: Mohammad Forouhar Vajargah, Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Sowmeh Sara, Guilan, Iran.
Citation: Nava Majidiyan, Seyed Parsa Mousavi and Mohammad Forouhar Vajargah, (2025), Assessing the Impact of Organophosphorus Pesticides (OPPs) on Aquatic Ecosystems: A Review, J New Medical Innovations and Research, 6(3); DOI:10.31579/2767-7370/153
Copyright: © 2025, Mohammad Forouhar Vajargah. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 18 January 2025 | Accepted: 12 February 2025 | Published: 25 March 2025
Keywords: aquatic ecosystems; organophosphate pesticides; OPPs; pollution; toxicity
Organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) are widely used chemicals with significant applications in agriculture, public health, and industry. Despite their utility, the extensive use of OPPs raises pressing concerns about their environmental persistence and impact on non-target organisms. This review explores the environmental distribution, toxicity, and detection methodologies associated with OPPs, emphasizing their ecological and public health implications. OPPs, characterized by their carbon-phosphorus (C-P) linkage and high chemical stability, are prone to pseudo-persistence in aquatic ecosystems, adversely affecting non-target plants and animals. Acute and chronic exposure to OPPs disrupts acetylcholinesterase activity, leading to toxicity in humans and wildlife, and is linked to serious health conditions such as neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and carcinogenesis.
Key advancements in analytical techniques, including spectroscopy and biosensing methods, have improved OPP residue detection across various matrices, such as water, soils, and biological tissues. Novel approaches like immunoassays and diffuse reflectance spectrophotometry demonstrate potential for enhanced efficiency, though limitations in recovery rates remain. The article further highlights the significance of OPPs such as trichlorfon and diazinon while cautioning against more hazardous compounds like chlorpyrifos and malathion. The need for innovative detection methods and mitigation strategies is underscored, with a call for interdisciplinary efforts to address environmental contamination and health risks associated with OPPs.
This review contributes to the understanding of OPP distribution and toxicity, advocating
On the topic of environmental pollution, water pollution invariably becomes a focal point [1-8]. Water is regarded as one of the most essential resources for both aquaculture and agriculture [2]. With the expansion of mechanized farming and the increase in production per unit area globally, the use of pesticides, particularly organophosphate compounds, has significantly increased [9].
Attributable to their extensive insecticidal range, organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) have been predominantly utilized in agriculture, horticulture, public health, and homes [10]. OPPs are the most widely used agricultural pesticides globally [11]. OPPs are less enduring than traditional pesticides, their frequent application and discharge might lead to pseudo-persistence and significant exposure risks for non-target aquatic species within aquatic ecosystems [10].
The pesticides used often make their way into surface water sources, and their effects on non-target organisms are among the pressing concerns of today's global community. The impact of these chemicals on the biological communities of natural water bodies and their potential effects on the population and health of aquatic organisms have raised various environmental and health-related concerns [9]. The infiltration of these pesticides into flowing water is inevitable.
One notable OPPs is Trichlorfon, which is widely used in aquaculture for various purposes [11]. Compared to other pesticides, it poses lower toxicity to fish; however, its effects vary depending on the concentration of the pesticide, exposure duration, fish species, and their resistance [11]. Although these environments are not the primary targets of agricultural and livestock pesticides, numerous monitoring studies have revealed the presence of these pesticides in surface water [9]. Another commonly used organophosphate pesticide in agriculture is diazinon [2]. In general, it can be stated that among OPPs, the use of trichlorfon and diazinon is preferable. On the other hand, due to the high toxicity of other pesticides such as chlorpyrifos and malathion, the use of these two OPPs should be avoided [11].
Organophosphate pesticides are considered among the most hazardous chemicals to human health [12]. Exposure to OPPs could harm human health, including neurotoxic damage, teratogenic effects, disruption of the endocrine system, immunotoxic responses, impaired cognitive development, and harm to both the reproductive and immune systems [10]. Additionally, OPP exposure has been linked to conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and diabetes. Most organophosphate pesticides cause acute poisoning in humans; however, some of them, upon entering the life cycle, lead to environmental contamination and even affect the bodies of vertebrate organisms, especially aquatic life. Therefore, identifying these pesticides in water, food, and the human environment is critical due to their potential threat to human health [13,14]. Consequently, it is crucial to investigate the environmental distribution, behavior, and persistence of OPPs to fully comprehend their potential hazards to ecosystems and human well-being [12].
Given the increasing use of these compounds as chemical agents in various products, such as insecticides and agricultural pesticides, along with the ease of access to these substances, conducting a review study on the research carried out in this area seemed necessary. This review aims to explore existing research on their environmental distribution, detection, and the critical need for mitigation strategies.
Organophosphate pesticides (OPPs)
Organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) are organic ester compounds derived from phosphorus, often comprising thiol or amide groups associated with thiophosphoric, phosphonic, or phosphoric acids, along with supplementary substituents such as phenoxy, cyanide, or thiocyanate moieties [15]. These organophosphate molecules serve as the primary constituents in herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides, as well as in nerve agents. OPPs represent a class of naturally occurring and man-made substances characterized by a carbon-phosphorus (C-P) bond that exhibits exceptional thermal and chemical stability, rendering it resistant to hydrolytic, photolytic, and chemical degradation in contrast to counterparts containing reactive linkages like sulfur-phosphorus (S-P), oxygen-phosphorus (O-P), or nitrogen-phosphorus (N-P) bonds [16,17]. The fundamental architecture of OPPs features a terminal phosphoryl oxygen atom linked to phosphorus through a double bond, accompanied by two hydrophobic groups attached to the phosphorus and a leaving group, often halide-based, bonded to the phosphorus atom [18].
Organophosphorus compounds find extensive application across a diverse range of sectors, including agriculture, horticulture, pest management, industrial manufacturing, vector control, polymer production, chemical warfare, and household utilities [19].
Both acute and chronic exposure to OPPs can result in varying degrees of toxicity across humans, animals, plants, and insects. Many OPPs function by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity, thereby impairing the nervous systems of terrestrial and aquatic organisms [19].
Toxicity of organophosphate pesticides on aquatic
Excessive application of OPPs adversely impacts non-target plant species as well as aquatic and terrestrial animal populations [20]. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) categorizes most OPPs within toxicity classes I through IV based on the risk associated with inhalation and oral exposure [15]. These compounds are implicated in triggering conditions such as photodermatitis, skin irritation, carcinogenesis, emesis, and nausea in humans while exhibiting mild to moderate toxicity toward amphibians and fish species [15]. The principal mode of action underlying acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibition involves the accumulation of acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter, leading to persistent stimulation of acetylcholine receptors [15].
OPPs are extensively employed on a global scale, posing significant public health challenges, particularly in developing nations. The toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic properties of organophosphate pesticide poisoning depend not only on the route and intensity of exposure but also on the molecular structure of the compound in question [21]. The fatal mechanism is the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity, resulting in acetylcholine build-up and heightened activation of acetylcholine receptors [15]. Standard therapeutic intervention includes the reactivation of inhibited acetylcholinesterase enzymes using oxime-based antidotes, coupled with the biochemical counteraction of acetylcholine effects via atropine administration. Timely treatment often ensures recovery from acute toxicity, though patients may experience residual neurological complications. The Lemna bioassay is regarded as the most standardized and broadly utilized method for assessing aquatic ecotoxicity in plant systems [21].
Methods of detection of OPPs
The advancement of diverse analytical methodologies has facilitated the extraction of critical information and elucidation of the structural characteristics of newly synthesized molecules. Ongoing research efforts are dedicated to identifying ligands and reporting matrices for the detection of organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) through various spectroscopic approaches, including ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy [22], Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy [23], mass spectrometry [24], X-ray diffraction analysis [25], electrochemical techniques [26], and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy [27]. The identification and quantification of OPP residues have been documented in various matrices such as water, guava fruit extracts, soils, sediments, animal and human tissues, plant matter, wheat grains, urine samples, dairy cow organs, soybean extracts, and carrots [28].
Recently, novel detection techniques for identifying organophosphate pesticide residues, such as immunoassays, Oscillo graphic polarography, and diffuse reflectance spectrophotometry, have gained traction due to their streamlined procedures, reduced operational effort, and improved efficiency. Among the existing methods, biosensors and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)--based approaches have dominated in recent years [29]. However, there is a pressing need to develop innovative molecular entities capable of reducing low recovery rates. Additionally, high-recovery spectroscopic and biosensing methodologies require further refinement through a series of systematic modifications to enhance their applicability and accuracy [30-32].
The widespread application of organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) in agriculture, public health, and industry underscores their critical importance while simultaneously drawing attention to their potential risks to ecosystems and human health. The adverse impacts on non-target species, combined with the persistent nature of these compounds in various environmental matrices, demand immediate and focused action. Although advancements in detection technologies have significantly enhanced the monitoring of OPP residues, challenges persist in achieving optimal recovery rates and developing sustainable strategies for detection and mitigation.
Effectively addressing these concerns requires a holistic approach that combines cutting-edge analytical technologies with robust, policy-driven frameworks aimed at reducing environmental contamination and protecting public health. Interdisciplinary collaboration plays a vital role in fostering innovative solutions to mitigate the risks posed by OPPs while preserving their essential functions in critical applications. Continued research and the ongoing refinement of detection methods are imperative to strike a balance that promotes both environmental sustainability and global health security.
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