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Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/
*Corresponding Author:
Citation:
Copyright: © 10.31579/2578-8825/002
Received: 30 November -0001 | Accepted: 01 January 1970 | Published: 27 December 2017
Keywords: Cereal Baits, Carbon Disulphide, Jiggery, Fish Meal, Egg Shell, Peanut, Zinc Phosphide, Coumatetralyl, Poultry Farms
A series of tests were conducted in poultry farms to select some suitable bait formulations to be used, for the management of rodent pests. A number of locally available and palatable food grains including viz. millet (whole), wheat (cracked), maize (cracked) and rice (broken) were tested for their preference to rodents. In no-choice test millet was the most preferred food items, followed by wheat, rice and maize to the poultry rodents. While, in multiple choice feeding test again consumption of millet was higher than rice, whereas difference between consumption of millet and wheat was non-significant. Similarly locally available taste additives namely peanut cracked (5%), yeast (2%), fish meal (5%), egg shell powder (5%), carbon disulphide (CS2) 30ppm and jaggery (gur/sugar 5%) were offered to the poultry rodents by mixing in millet–wheat (used in equal quantity) bait. Paired choice feeding test revealed that consumption of bait added with egg shell was significantly higher (P > 0.05) than rest of the five additive baits. Whereas, the order of preference of various bait formulations in multiple choice feeding test was as follow; egg shell bait >yeast bait >peanut bait > CS2 bait > jaggery bait > plain bait > fish meal bait.Use of above mentioned grain bait with 5% egg shell was tested for its effectiveness to carry the lethal quantities of an acute rodenticide (2% zinc phosphide) and an anticoagulant rodenticide (0.0375% coumatetralyl). The reduction in rodent activity with the usage of 2% zinc phosphide treatment was 70%. Coumatetralyl (0.0375%) gave relatively better success and resulted in 82% reduction of the rodent activity.
Many grains have been tested to evaluate food preferences of rodents. In trials with captive rodents millet and rice proved attractive to M. domesticus, R. rattus and R. norvegicus (Robards and Saunders, 1998; Khan, 1974; Brooks and Bowerman, 1973); canary seeds, oats and wheat were preferred (compared to soft wheat, rice, sorghum, sunflower seeds and barn + 5% molasses) by M. musculus (Robards and Saunders, 1998; Asran, 1993a, b; Rowe et al., 1974) and maize was preferred by R. exulans and M. musculus (Pennycuik and Cowan, 1990; MacFadden, 1984). Similarly, a mix of whole canary seeds, wheat and pinhead oatmeal was found attractive to M. domesticus in London (Rowe et al., 1974). Canary seed, wheat and rice were highly palatable to M. domesticus in Australia (Robards and Saunders, 1998). In Egypt, M. musculus preferred wheat over sorghum, sunflower seeds and bran with 5% molasses added (Asran, 1993a, b).
The roof rat (R. rattus) principally eats fruits and seeds (Yabe, 1979) and prefers millet to a range of other grains (Khan, 1974). Leung and Clark (2005) claimed that in the southeast Queensland (Australia), R. rattus ate more bait with cracked wheat compared to three other bait types (wax block, pig feed and coumatetralyl paste). R. rattus from poultry farms in Johadpur (India) preferred millet over the poultry feed (Mathur et al., 1992). A bait containing cracked wheat was more palatable to R. rattus (Singla and Parshad, 2002). Analysis of the stomach contents of R. rattus from grocery shops and houses of Rawalpindi, Pakistan showed wheat as the most frequently consumed cereal followed by chickpea, millet, barley, lentils (moong, masoor), maize, sorghum and peanuts (Naqvi et al., 2013).
Highly-preferred natural foods and flavors can improve feeding when added to grain-based baits. These often include peanuts, walnuts, peanut butter, dried coconut, dried meat, fish meal, steamed bone meal, powdered milk, and powdered eggs (Marsh, 1988). The additives are usually mixed with a ratio of 5-10%.
In Pakistan, attempts to make bait attractive to R. rattus living in public godowns and poultry farms in Karachi, have involved additives such as egg shell, egg yolk, yeast and minced meat. Food grains with egg yolk (2%) and yeast (2%) were highly preferred over plain bait (Shafi et al., 1990). Similarly, Shafi et al. (1993) evaluated the addition of egg yolk, egg shell, sheep blood, yeast, minced meat or chicken blood to enhance poison bait acceptance by captive B. Bengalensis. Poison bait containing 0.005% brodifacoum with 2% added minced meat enhanced bait uptake. In both these studies the taste additives were all added at 2% (w/w) to a bait base consisting equal proportions of broken rice and wheat flour. Egg additive (3%) is known to make bait more palatable to commensal (R, rattus) and field rodents (Nesokia indica and B. bengalensis) (Pervez, 2007). In Ludhiana (India) 2% egg albumin and egg shell powder in cereal bait enhanced acceptance and efficacy of 2% zinc phosphide against R. rattus captured from poultry farm environments (Singla and Kanwar, 2014). The present study has been designed for testing the materials specifically for use on poultry farms. This was expected to generate information of more practical use than that usually associated with animal behaviors and restricted choices under captivity.
Pesticides are largely applied in many agricultural, commercial, residential, and industrial applications to control/ kill pests. Pesticides are helpful for society to fight disease and increase agricultural productivity; but, they can be moved through air, water and soil and can cause hazards to the ecosystem and to human health. The effect of pesticide residues on human health is a worldwide problem, as human exposure to pesticides can occur through swimming, showering/ raining, air, agricultural commodities, or soil (Li and Jennings, 2017). Worldwide jurisdictions have been working on regulating pesticide standard values for residential surface soil, residential air, drinking water, surface water, groundwater, and food for years (Li, 2018).
An Overview on Preferences of Complex of Rodent Species for Food Grains and Additives
Locally made wooden box was tested against complex of rodent species inhabiting poultry farms of Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Pakistan. The box had a lengthwise channel of 6 cm width for bait placement with a lockable lid. In no-choice and multiple-choice feeding tests, millet was the most chosen grain of rodents on poultry farms which was consumed significantly in higher quantities than wheat, maize and rice. The choice of food depends upon the palatability (Young, 1946) and particle size (Khan, 1974). In that study of me and my colleagues the preference of rodents for millet may be due to its mild sweet flavor, proteinic and its high energy value. Daily requirements of different nutrients, like, fats, proteins and carbohydrates, may also affect the feeding preference of the specific animal and / or population of an area (Stenseth, 1977; Provenza, 1995; Provenza, 1996). The findings of our that study were in concordance with the results of Mathur et al. (1988) who found high preference of Rattus rattus toward millet grains with 2% arachis oil in poultry farms in Jhodpur, India.
Second preference of rodents was wheat. It has been reported that cracked wheat base is more palatable to roof rat,Rattus rattus in dairy and poultry farms (Singla and Parshad, 2002; Leung and Clark, 2005; Singla and Kanwar, 2014). Another study carried out on this rat on poultry farms in India revealed that house rat preferred cracked wheat over wheat flour, poultry food and fish meal (Kandwal, 2009). In Pakistan Pervaz et al. (1999), Khan et al. (2000) and Pervaz (2007) have been used broken rice and wheat flour as an effective bait base against complex of rodent species (including commensal, Rattus rattus and Mus spp. and field rodents (Bandicota bengalensis, Millardia meltada and Nesokia indica).
A preference for cracked grains (jowar, rice and wheat) over whole grains has been reported for various rodent species (Rao and Prakash, 1980; Leung and Clark 2005). The increased consumption of bait material in cracked form may have practical value for rodent control as it can carry a higher quantity of the rodenticides, because of the increase in surface area and natural absorption.
In most of the feeding tests, the rodents took 2-4 days to enter the bait stations and start eating bait. This behavior reflects neophobia, avoidance of unknown objects in a known place (Barnett, 1958), behavior that varies not only among populations of the same species but also between species (Mitchell et al., 1977; Howard 1987).Inglis et al. (1996) recommended that baits should be covered with materials present at the baiting site to minimize the impact of neophobia. Mice may also be neophobic, but generally tend to approach an unfamiliar object or place (Chitty, 1954; Barnett, 1988). However, Misslin and Ropartz (1981) found that placement of a new object in a familiar environment evoked avoidance and burying responses in laboratory mice.
Use of additives may facilitate an improved consumption of some inexpensive and locally available food baits (Mushtaqet al., 2013; Pervez, 2007; Abbas, 2003). In both paired choice and multiple-choice feeding tests consumption of bait added with an egg shell and yeast was significantly more than the plain bait. Baits added with an egg shell and yeast stood first and second, respectively in the order of preferences among the all six tested additives. Rodents’ selection of food may possibly depend upon the calorigenic value (Haushmann, 1932), deliciousness (Young, 1946) and behavioral components (Barnett, 1956). Egg shell preference over other additives can be related to its taste and calcium element which may have a positive effect on bone metabolism (Hunt et al., 2008). Poultry rats (R. rattus) in Karachi preferred bait containing 49% wheat flour and 49% broken rice with added egg yolk (2%) and yeast (2%) as taste additives over the plain bait (Shafi et al.,1990). Rattus norvegicus captured from the Empress market, Karachi (which deals with meat, fish, vegetables, dry and fresh fruits, poultry and groceries) showed highest preference for yeast (2%) added to bait and second highest preference for egg shell (2%) added to bait (Shafi et al., 1992).
Order of preference of rodents for baits added with additives was found as follows; egg shell bait > yeast bait > peanut bait > CS2 bait > jaggery bait > plain bait > fish meal bait. Feeding on bait added with fish meal added to bait did not show any attraction and enhanced intake by the rodents even though. It remained amongst the least it is often a substantial constituent in poultry feed. The results of above-mentioned study were consistent with those of Kandhwal (2009) who found fish meal as the least preferred food for poultry rat (R. rattus) in Haryana, India. Similarly, it did not enhance bait taken by captive R. norvegicus, N. indica and B. bengalensis in Sindh, Pakistan (Pervez et al., 2000; Pervez, 2007). However fish meal has been reported as increasing bait consumption by house mice (Jacobs et al., 2003).
Efficacy of Bait with Acute (zinc phosphide) and Anticoagulant (coumatetralyl/raccumin) Rodenticide
The rodents were offered three days of pre-baiting (Bhardwaj and Prakash, 1982) before their exposure to zinc phosphide bait. It has been reported that through pre-baiting one can get high mortality of rodents with high intake of zinc phosphide (Shumake et al., 2002). Zinc phosphide is a single dose rodenticide which has a good degree of effectiveness against rodents (US department of interior 1968) and causes death of rodents within 12-120 h of ingestion (Gratz, 1973). In trails of last study 2% zinc phosphide bait resulted in to 70% reduction of rodent activity at the poultry farms. A number of studies conducted on poultry farms using zinc phoshide baits in Andhra Pardash and Ludhiana (Punjab, India) have reported 50% control of R. rattus populations (Jain and Mukherjee, 1982). Zinc phosphide coated and groundnut oil smeared millet grains bait has been reported to kill 92.8% rodents belonging to R. rattus, M. musculus and B. bengalensis species (Parshad et al., 1987).
Attractive baits can enhance bait uptake by lessening the bait exposure period without loss of efficacy (Watkins et al.,1999). Another study by Parshad et al. (1991) recorded an 87% population reduction of R. rattus with zinc phosphide bait. Singla and Kanwar (2014) obtained only 42.7% reduction in the activity of R. rattus with the use of 2% zinc phosphide mixed with cracked wheat and 2% egg shell powder and egg albumin, but Hussain et al. (2003) obtained 92.1 % reduction in live burrow activity of the bandicoot rat by placing zinc phosphide (2%) bait (comprised of broken rice and eggshell powder) into the rodent burrows and Khan et al. (2012) reported a 62.7% reduction in B. bengalensis, N. indica and T. indica activity with the usage of zinc phosphide (2%) wax cake and broken rice baits in groundnut fields of Pothwar region, Pakistan.
Anticoagulants are generally assumed to be odourless and tasteless (Lund, 1988), so the baits are readily accepted by the target animal(s). As there is presumably no bait aversion for anticoagulants and multi-dose feeding is usually required for efficacy pre-baiting is not usually practiced.
The palatability of coumatetralyl was better than zinc phosphide. It may be because of its slow mode of action and requiring a longer period of time between the ingestion of a lethal dose and the onset of symptoms (Greaves, 1994). Feeding of this poisoned bait (0.0375% coumatetralyl) resulted into 82% reduction in rodent activity. In India Chopra and Parshad (1985) achieved 100% mortality in R. rattus by feeding coumatetralyl bait (comprising of wheat flour and 2% sugar) for 10 days in no-choice test in captivity. However, the same bait and test conditions produced 100% mortality in B. bengalensis by single day exposure. Whereas, in Pakistan Hussain et al. (2003) obtained 84.8% and 92.2% reduction in live burrow activity of rats with burrow baiting of coumatetralyl (0.0375%) offered in broken rice with egg shell powder in rice and wheat crops, respectively.
Pearl millet (whole form) due to its aroma and the small size is the best food item to be used as a bait base against rodents inhabiting poultry farms. Wheat in cracked form may carry a higher quantity of the rodenticides, because of the increase in surface area and natural absorption. In cracked form wheat gets soft and easy to chew so it mixed with millet in equal proportion (1:1) has proved to be a useful cereal bait base combination.
Whole millet and cracked wheat were the preferred grains for control of rodents on poultry farms in the Rawalpindi-Islamabad area of Pakistan and probably more generally. Further, a millet-wheat-ground egg shell bait proved effective as a base for delivering the lethal quantities of poison baits, zinc phosphide (quick in action, cheap and required in small quantity) and coumatetralyl (highly effective, no pre-baiting required, lack of bait shyness and cause apparently painless death of rodents). The use of bait boxes is recommended, not only reduce bait spillage by rodents but also prevent access of poultry birds to the toxic baits.
Use of more than one grain as bait base could be effective against rodent control (Mushtaq et al., 2013; Pervez et al., 2005). Egg shell is a cheap and locally available material as a byproduct of bakery and confectionery industry so it could be used as an effective additive to enhance bait intake in rodent pest of poultry farms in Rawalpindi and Islamabad area of Pakistan.
Farmers should use acute rodenticide first to get a quick knock down of rodents with follow ups by the anticoagulants. In case of poisoning with coumatetralyl care should be taken to remove dead bodies from hidden places to avoid unhygienic conditions at the poultry farms.
After application of the pesticide to control rodent pests, management and regulation of pesticide are also important to poultry farms in Pakistan, including both human and animal health. Li and Jennings (2017) conducted worldwide pesticide regulation study and pointed out that Pakistan is lack of pesticide standard values in agricultural and residential soil. Since human and animal exposure to pesticide can occur via ingestion of soil (Jennings and Li, 2014), inhalation of soil dust, and dermal contact with surface soil (Li, 2018), it is necessary for environmental regulatory agencies in Pakistan to regulate and manage pesticide after the application.
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