AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/
*Corresponding Author:
Citation:
Copyright: © 2018. Rika Terano. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Received: 30 November -0001 | Accepted: 01 January 1970 | Published: 01 January 1970
Keywords: ,
Sustainable agriculture is closely related to farming practices. There are many farming practices such as land preparation, use of fertilizers and weedicides among other indicators of farming practices that lead to sustainable agriculture. In particular, weed and pest control are focal points for certain crops such as cotton, rice, vegetables, and fruit with heavily applied chemical inputs which cause unsustainability in farming. Among food crops, paddy requires enormous doses of fertilizers, weedicides, and pesticides to keep it healthy and productive. The objective of this study is to determine the factors that contribute to the unsustainability of paddy farming practices at field level via Paddy Farmer Sustainability Index (PFSI) based on the current 33 paddy farming practices. Tobit regression analysis found that knowledge and awareness played essential roles as the determinant of unsustainability level in paddy farming.
Traditionally, two related goals constituted conventional agriculture: the maximization of production and profit, which were developed without any consideration of their unintended, long-term consequences on the ecological dynamics of agro-ecosystems and biodiversity (Gliessman et al., 1998). Overuse of chemicals also raises input costs and lowers profit margins for farmers (Dawra, 2013). Also, the indiscriminate use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals or their improper application methods create chronic health problems among farmers as well. Fish samples from paddy farming areas contained pesticide residues such as Aldrin/dieldrin, chlordane, HCH, and DDT, which is dangerous to human health. This discovery could be due to the farmer's lack of knowledge about pests and their control and hence the overuse of chemical input to protect their crops (Parveen, 2011).
Similarly, the chemical residues in food products can also have adverse effects on humans, and the worst consequence of using excessive chemicals is the evolution of aggressive pesticide resistant pest population (Dhawan, 2008). Sustainable agriculture is a well-known and a vital concept to alert farmers about the alternative farming systems and methods of farming. Sustainable agriculture goes alongside organic farming which is a rapidly growing sector in many countries (Rigby and Caceres, 2001). As Power (2003) and Prasad and Power (1997) have mentioned, sustainable agriculture is now on the agenda of agricultural institutions around the world as governments have become concerned with the issues of saving the environment, safeguarding the biodiversity and food safety. Sustainable agriculture can be one of the solutions to controversial farming issues as it can ensure profitability, food quality and safety (Feher and Beke, 2013).
Standards in agriculture not only garner market access but also ensure that farming practices are carried out in an environmentally conscious and sustainable manner (Economic Transformation Programs, 2013). In Malaysia, MyGAP (Malaysian Good Agricultural Practices) was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry (MOA) on 28 August 2013. This action is not only meant to ensure that the Malaysian produce is benchmarked against other Good Agricultural Practices but also to allow Malaysia’s agricultural products to gain better recognition and acceptability domestically and internationally. In case of paddy, Rice Check introduced by MOA has been recognized as the procedure to be followed by paddy farmers in reducing environmental pollution, assisting in developing an environmentally friendly and sustainable national agricultural industry. Since rice is a staple food for Malaysians, the process of its production regarding farming practices needs to change following sustainable and environmentally friendly practices stipulated by MOA. Rice Check is a guideline of the practices of paddy farming in Malaysia that was formulated by MOA. Several practices specified under the Rice Check are as follows: A. Soil acidity status; ensures that the soil has no acidic fields. B. Plot condition: Makes sure that the plot is flat and well maintained. C. Weed control: Can prevent reduction of paddy yields. Irrigation scheduling ensures compliance with the scheduled irrigation timetable to save water. D. Land preparation: Flatten the land. E. Seedling: Use of certified seedling. F. Fertilizer application: High yields obtained through an adequate supply of nutrients and timely required information. G. Water management: Efficient water management and proper timing are essential to achieving higher productivity. H. Pest control: Weed and pest can reduce paddy yield. and; I. Harvesting: reducing post-harvest losses. These are several practices that must be followed by the farmers to become certified as MyGap (Malaysian Good Agriculture Practices). In most of the prior studies on sustainability practices, this is difficult to follow, and most paddy farmers are unsustainable in their practices (Bonny and Vijayaragavan, 2001; Taylor, et al. 1993). The objective of this study is to determine the factors that contribute to the unsustainability of paddy farming practices at field level via Paddy Farmer Sustainability Index (PFSI) based on the current 33 paddy farming practices.
This study was conducted through a field survey mainly by face-to-face interviews of paddy farmers in KADA granaries area, Kelantan. The survey area covered under the supervision of the local farmers’ agriculture organization (Pertubuhan Peladang Kawasan (PPK)) with typical farming conditions of double cropping per year. A simple random sampling method was applied to collect data from the respondents under the same farming and irrigation systems in selected PPK areas. The total number of the paddy farmers interviewed for this survey was 61 household heads. The survey took place in the month of May to August of 2013/2014 which is the main season of paddy production. This study attempts to measure how paddy farmers practice sustainable agriculture by creating a sustainability index for the whole practices as stipulated in the Rice Check. Each practice is assigned a score depending on its importance. However, those practices that do not follow the Rice Check guideline are assigned a negative score or no score. Therefore, farmers following the stipulated Rice Check guideline will be given a positive score, while those farmers not following the stipulated Rice Check guideline will be given a Desustainability index. Finally, to give meaning to the calculated raw score, it is converted to a percentage.
1. Land preparation (Rice check 1.2.5.)
1.1 Soil acidity
2.Seedling (Rice check 6)
2.1 Amount of seeds 140kg/hectare
3-1 timing
1st application (15-20 days after seedling)
Not following= 0, Within 15-20 days= +1
Exceeding additional 100%=-1,
Exceeding additional 200%=-2
Exceeding additional 300 above=-3
5-4.Burning dried straw
Table 1. Production practices included in the unadjusted Farmer Sustainability Index (FSI).
Source: Own calculation based on surveyed data and the formula is adopted from Taylor et al. (1993).
Thus, after neutralizing the score, the maximum score is 100 indicating very sustainable practices; while on the other extreme 0 is very unsustainable. Paddy Farmers Sustainability Index (PFSI) is applied to measure paddy farming practices and is addressed on value and range based on Taylor et al. (1993) and Zainal et al. (1994). The continuous sustainability percentage score (within a range of 0 to 100) falls under six discrete sustainability categories, with the following range of index values:
・Possibly very sustainable : > 70.0;
・Possibly quite sustainable : 60.1 - 70.0;
・Possibly sustainable : 50.1 - 60.0;
・Intermediate : 40.1 - 50.0;
・Somewhat unsustainable : 40.0 - 20.0; and
・Unsustainable : <= 20.0.
Given the sustainability score, there is a gap between maximum score possible (100), and the minimum score (0) and the practices are assumed constant within each farmer. Thus, the difference between the maximum possible score minus the sustainability score is equivalent to the unsustainability practices by the farmers. Hence the higher the sustainability index score, the lower the UNSustainability index (PFUNSI) and vice versa. Thus, those paddy farmers’ fall under the somewhat unsustainable category thus the unsustainability becomes more unsustainable under the PFUNSI.
The formula for calculating Paddy Farmers UNSustainability Index (PFUNSI):
1. Total Unadjusted farming practices score (TUFPS)= Σ Farming practices score
2. PFSI = TUFPS / Total possible farming practices score (TPFPS) * 100
3. Paddy farmers UNSustaiability Index (PFUNSI) = 100 – PFSI
As being discussed earlier, the objective of the study is to determine factors that cause unsustainability from the socio-demographic background of the paddy farmers. Though some of the farmers already belong to the unsustainable category and sustainable concerning farming practices, yet some socio-demographic factors could contribute to the unsustainability to the practices besides the farming practices as stipulated by the Rice Check.
The Tobit regression analysis was used and specify as follows:
Y= a + bi Xi+...+ bjXj + u;
Number of protective apparels and equipments (globe, apron, mask etc)
The results on PFUNSI showed that all paddy farmers were unsustainable in their paddy cultivation. This result is an indicating that they failed to follow the Paddy Rice Check guideline and using either excessive chemical or did not manage the paddy filed following the procedure or guideline. In the same token, the socio-economic background indicated that most farmers do not have knowledge on sustainable practices and are not aware of the good agricultural practices (GAP) and the application of Rice Check guideline in their practices. Thus, based on the Tobit regression analysis, two variables were found to be significant in explaining the unsustainability of paddy farming practices, i.e., awareness about the existence of Rice Check and the knowledge about sustainable practices. Those paddy farmers who are not aware of Rice Check or MyGAP and Sustainable practices are more unsustainable in their paddy farming practices than those aware. Again, those paddy farmers who do not have knowledge and training on MyGAP are more unsustainable in their paddy farming practices than those with knowledge and training. Other variables are not significant in explaining the unsustainability practices by paddy farmers. Thus, awareness campaign should be carried out by the relevant agencies about sustainable agriculture to develop the knowledge on sustainable agriculture practices. This action calls for the intensification of dissemination of knowledge via extension services to enhance the adoption process of sustainable paddy farming practices.
3.Fertilizer application (Rice check4.7.8.)
Exceeding amount (above 101%) = -1,
5-3. Amount of weedicide
4-1 Following irrigation schedule
・1st application (3-5 days after seedling)
Not following schedule=0, within 3-5 days=+1
Not following schedule=0
15-30 days after seedling-good
exceed 30 days after seedling-not effective
Exceeding additional 50%=0
(weather exceeding limit or not)
Exceeding additional 50%=0
Exceeding additional 51-100%=-1,
Exceeding additional 200%=-2
Exceeding additional 300% above=-3
6-8. Organic pesticide
Organic pesticide used=1, no=0
6-1. Pulling up weeds by hand
-Y is Farmer Unsustainable Index (range 0-99),
-X1 is age (dummy: above 55=1, below 55=0),
-X2 is awareness of Rice Check (MyGap) (dummy: being aware=0, not being aware=1),
-X3 is knowledge on sustainable agriculture (dummy: with knowledge=0, without knowledge=1),
-X4 is record for farming practice (dummy: taking record=1, not taking record=0),
-X5 is Full-time and part-time (Part-time=0, full-time=1).
Results and Discussions
Table 2 shows the demographic profiles of interviewed farmers in KADA, Kelantan. The mean for the age of farmers was 51 years, including the only four female farmers. Many of the farmers have completed elementary school as their educational background. Half of the farmers were employed as part-time workers in the off-farm sector, while the other half were working as full-time farmers. Even though average farm size was 7.1 hectare, half of the farmers were working as a part-time farmer.
Storage of chemical input
Stored in a safe way
Stored in an unsafe way
Awareness of Rice Check (MyGap)
Being aware
No education/primary school
Not being aware
More than secondary school
Knowledge of farming practice for Rice Check (MyGap)
Average number of equipment
Without knowledge
Table 2. Demographic profiles of paddy farmers in KADA areas, Kelantan state.
Farmer Sustainability Index Measure | Farmer SustainabilityIndex Value 3.6–57.1 |
Distribution of index value range | |
Possibly very unsustainable: <20.0 18 farmers (22.5%) | |
Possibly unsustainable: 20.0–40.0 49 farmers (61.2%) | |
Possibly quite unsustainable: 40.1–50.0 | 11 farmers (13.8%) |
Intermediate: 50.1–60.0 2 farmers (2.5%) | |
Somewhat sustainable: 60.1–70.0 - | |
Sustainable: >70.0 | |
Table 3. Farmer-adjusted sustainable index in Sungai Petani, Kedah.
Source: Questionnaire on Sustainability Practices survey 2013–2014.
As can be seen in Table 3, all paddy farmers were unsustainable in their paddy cultivating practices. Tobit regression analysis was applied with “Paddy Farmers UNSustainability Index (PFUNSI)” as the dependent variable to determine the significant factors that may influence Paddy Farmers UNSustainability Index (PFUNSI). And age, awareness, knowledge, a record for farming practice and full-time and part-time farmer form the explanatory variables as presented in Table 4. Out of five independent variables included in the Tobit regression analysis, two variables were statistically significant at 5% level with positive signs. Farmers who have not been aware of the sustainable paddy farming practice are highly unsustainable compared with those farmers who have been aware. Farmers who did not know about sustainable agriculture tend to have higher unsustainability level.
Table 4. Tobit regression analysis on unsustainability
Coefficient
Std.Error
Age (above 55=1, below 55=0)
Awareness of Rice Check (MyGap) (being aware=0, not being aware=1)
Full-time and part-time (Part-time=0, full-time=1)
Dependent variable = Farmer Unsustainable Index (range 0-100).
Knowledge of farming practice for Rice Check (MyGap) (with knowledge=0,without knowledge=1)
Record for farming practice (taking record=1, not takeing record=0)
S.E. of regression
Akaike info criterion
Schwarz criterion
Hannan-Quinn criter.
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
